Golden Age (Netherlands)

The golden age is a period in Dutch history that largely coincides with the 17th century. The northern Netherlands, which together formed the Republic of the seven United Netherlands, made a bloom period in the field of trade, science and Arts. Also in terms of its political and military power (especially at sea) took the Republic in leading positions in the world. The bloom time of the northern Netherlands was an important new stage in the development of the Western civilization.

Some like as a starting point of the golden age to 1602, the year in which the VOC was founded; others opt for the year 1609, the beginning year of the twelve years ' truce. Until the end of the file (1621) the economy grew almost unhindered. During the thirty years ' war, which largely coincided with the second phase of the eighty years ' war, was in some sectors stagnated, in other growth. After 1648 pulled the economy back to; especially for the industry were very prosperous years. After the Rampjaar1672 began a period of relative economic decline and was the golden age about her peak. A period of consolidation followed.

Jonathan Israel makes a further subdivision of the period. He does this as follows:

This article treats primarily the economic, social and cultural history. 
 * early golden age (early Golden Age) (1588-1647)
 * late golden age (later Golden Age) (1647-1702)

Content
[hide] *1 Introduction  ==Introduction[ Edit] == There are several causes that have contributed to this flowering time in arts and Sciences. ===Economic bloom[ Edit] === The economy has played a very important role in the rise of the Republic in the seventeenth century. In the golden age of the Republic grew up to the center of the world trade. After itself in a few decades to have free-spirited of Spanish rule the country has developed into an international superpower. Both in Asia and Africa and in America had the Republic over some very profitable colonies. In the new world economy went Amsterdam play a very important role. The flourishing trade led to a large and very wealthy class of merchants. The new prosperity also led to increased attention to and sponsorship of Visual Arts, literature, Sciencesand care for the poor.
 * 1.1 economic bloom
 * 1.2 Tolerance
 * 1.3 self awareness
 * 1.4 directors and scholars
 * 2 development of the Republic of
 * 3 demography; urbanisation
 * 4 agriculture
 * trade and industry 5
 * 6 social structure; walks of life
 * 6.1 status of women
 * 6.2 Experiences of foreigners
 * 7 Religion
 * 8 Culture
 * 9 Education
 * 9.1 Universities
 * 10 Literature
 * 11 Architecture
 * painting 12
 * 12.1 history paintings
 * 12.2 (Group-) portraits
 * 12.3 everyday scenes
 * 12.4 landscapes and cityscapes
 * 12.5 still lifes
 * 13 sculpture
 * 14 Music
 * 15 Science
 * 16 Warfare
 * Empire 17
 * political structures 18
 * 19 end of the golden age
 * 19.1 economic downturn
 * 19.2 Aftermath of the golden age
 * 20 see also
 * 21 external links
 * 22 Literature
 * 23 footnotes

After the Netherlands has a new Spanish rule, Republican political system chosen. Society characterized by feudalism in Netherlands was much less than in other countries and as a result, the labour market was much more freely. Another factor that caused the economy ran so well, was the fact that in the Republic of a comprehensive market existed for borrowing and lending money. This allowed people, companies or the State, which like investments or expenditure wanted to do, make use of the saved money by someone else. This financial market therefore facilitated the making of investments in potentially profitable companies or State organizations (such as the Dutch East India Company).

A third reason for the economic prosperity was the technological advances that the Republic during the golden age had in many other countries. Because the Republic of a relatively diverse, open and tolerant society knew, it was easier to develop ideas and inventions. On almost any site ran the Republic for on abroad. A well-known example of such a ' novelty ' is the flute ship, that the Dutch sailors gave a great advantage compared to many other maritime countries.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">A last important cause for the economic prosperity was the pivotal role that got in the Amsterdam world trade. In Amsterdam began to arise there becoming a staple market, where almost all information, goods and services on a relatively small spot were present. ===Tolerance<span class="mw-editsection" len="340" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === Synod of Dordrecht, november 13, 1618.<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">According to visitors from abroad and also according to the official propaganda was Netherlands a very tolerant country, the land of the true vryheit. Later historians have this associated with international trade and the reformation, both of which would have contributed to a relatively mild to dissenters. Protestants argue that the interpretation of the Bible especially a matter of private conscience of every individual is a central dogma and reject clerical hierarchy, and to endorse. That did not prevent the Calvinists in the golden age took a dominant position legitimized by the State (Synod of dort) and the dissenting Protestants difficult or impossible to confess their religion according to other views. Opportunism will have played an important role, since one could not afford the large Catholic share of the population too much of alienating. The relative tolerance for was that one faced an exodus as the dogmatic Spain had experienced. Or left the proverbial Dutch tolerance was about a form of indifference or opportunism: in any case, it was easy for foreigners to get to the low countries to travel and emigrate. There was quite a lot of freedom and in a number of Dutch cities there was a social ' melting pot '.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">However, there are examples that the Dutch in the golden age were not so tolerant. Among other things in relation to variations on the ' official ' reformed faith. The liberal Mennonites, remonstranten oriented and Mennonites were persecuted, were banned and strict professional had to sometimes (in the case of the strictly pacifist Mennonites) even emigrate (as Danzig and the surrounding area, and later to the Volga where they became known as 'Volga Germans'). Jews in the Netherlands could not become members of guilds, could not dare and were not allowed to marry non-Jews. ===Self Awareness<span class="mw-editsection" len="344" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">For the Calvinists went purity in the learn above all else. The battle for freedom to profess Calvinism in addition to the fight for political independence was the issue of the Dutch revolt against Spain, better known as the eighty years ' war (1568-1648). The complete independence of the Protestant northern provinces as outcome of this fight will certainly have strengthened the national awareness. All Netherlands and Spain in 1609, when a truce locks that would last twelve years, was much of all this achieved.

<p lang="en" len="391" style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Just like after the French Revolution, led political freedom to freedom in other domains of human actions and led this freedom meant that one also was open to new cultural and scientific ideas. ===Directors and scholars<span class="mw-editsection" len="354" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">At the end of the sixteenth and seventeenth century, the Netherlands had a number of highly skilled drivers, such as Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, Johan de Witt (also mathematical life insurance), Cornelis de Graeff andAndries Bicker. The men's field also lacked not skillful like Prince Maurits and Prince Frederick Henry and admirals as Piet Hein, Maarten Tromp and Michiel de Ruyter. In addition there were scientists and skilled craftsmen to find on all kinds of terrain in the low countries. Some quantities and their areas are Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (1562-1621) music, Hugo de Groot (1583-1645) international law and law of the sea, Louis de Geer (1587-1652) arms manufacturing and trade, Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669) painting, Franciscus Gomarus (1563-1641) and Jacobus Arminius (c. 1559 - 1609) theology, Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) mathematics, physics and astronomy, Simon Stevin (1548 - 1620) of hydraulic engineering and arithmetic, Jan Adriaanszoon Leeghwater(1575 - 1650) hydraulic engineering and Benedict Spinoza (1632-1677) philosophy. ==Emergence of the Republic of<span class="mw-editsection" len="355" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">During the last decades of the sixteenth century the Republic was created. The northern and Southern Netherlands eventually went their separate ways. The North said the wedding to King Philip on. from the outset it was the Holland region that dominated the Northern Union . The other regions saw themselves forced to accept the leadership of Holland. Clear differences between the northern and Southern Netherlands had been longer. Brabant and Flanders, the main southern regions, often had conflicting interests. Centralization from Brussels was therefore difficult.The Central Government had even less influence in the area north of the great rivers. Further was a large part of the population in the French-speaking regions stayed loyal to the Catholic faith . Nobility, clergy and theurban patriciate had significantly more power in the South than in the North.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Initially it was very uncertain whether the new North-Dutch State opposite the Spanish force majeure would know to maintain. The Duke of Parma rapidly conquered city after city, among other things the strategically important Breda. William of Orange week in 1583 to Delft. From now on, the States General met in Holland and Zeeland. Also in the East of the Netherlands, the Spaniards later successes. The Spaniard Verdugo was stadtholder of Groningen. The stadtholder of Gelderland, Willem van den Berg, did the oath of allegiance to both parties and chose the Spanish side. In 1590, Groningen and Nijmegenwere almost the entire area east of the IJssel occupied by the Spaniards. In 1589 was also conquered Geertruidenberg by them. Spanish garrisons fell fromSteenwijk and Coevorden Friesland even inside. This period of crisis, in which the Republic had to fight to survive, was also a period of great creativity. Existing administrative and economic structures were pushed aside to make way for forms of organization that made possible more effective resistance. While the troops of Parma pulled to the North, was an internal power struggle fought. The aristocratic supporters of count Leicester, who hoped that the Protestant Elizabeth I wanted to accept sovereignty, stood facing the Dutch Regents. The latter won the calls.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Were the crucial events in the years 1588, 1589 and 1590. The decision had far-reaching consequences of Philip II to interfere in the civil war that raged in France during these years. The Spanish army in the low countries was deployed on a large scale. That made the Dutch counter attack possible. In addition, also began in the years after 1588 the spectacular growth of the Dutch economy, and with it the financial capacity. The cities grew explosively. Within a few decades the Republic was one of the leading European powers.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In ten years time conquered Prince Maurice forty-three cities and many fortresses on the Spaniards. They were almost completely expelled from Gelderland, Overijssel, Drenthe and Groningen. Also in Brabant area was conquered.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Philip II is probably in the years before his death (1598) realised that his politics had failed. He therefore closed-shortly before his death-the peace of Vervinswith France. Spain also seemed to withdraw from theNetherlands. Philip's daughter Isabella followed it with her husband, Albertus by Austria, on in the southern Netherlands. Thus a Spanish puppet State created. To a reunification of North and South has not led, although there are negotiations. Of the northern provinces was demanded that they formally recognized as sovereign the Archdukes and tolerated the Catholic worship. These were for the North unacceptable demands. ==Demography; urbanization<span class="mw-editsection" len="357" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The special position that the Republic took in the seventeenth century is astonishing when one considers that the number of inhabitants of the United Provinces never above the two million has come true. A striking aspect of the Northern low countries was the high degree of urbanization. Most of the inhabitants lived in the West, in the County of Holland (about equal to the current North and South Holland). About half of them lived in a city, in Holland especially in Amsterdam, Leiden, Haarlem, Rotterdam, Delft, Dordrecht and Enkhuizen. Outside Holland were Middelburg, Utrecht and Groningen the largest cities. This relationship between urban dwellers and rural residents was exceptional for its time: in surrounding countries lived only fifteen to twenty percent of the population in a city. <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">More than two centuries earlier, at the end of the fourteenth century, had only three cities in the same area not much more than 10,000 inhabitants and the population lived mainly in the middle and East of the country.The large population growth in the West was made possible by the hydraulic engineering work, starting from the 13th century have been carried out on an unprecedented scale, (across the country but especially in the western coastal provinces): land acquisition on the coast, containment rivers and land reclamation. This immense efforts also formed by the large and complex administrative device that required an additional explanation for the high administrative organization degree in the Netherlands. Also the gradual switch from grain construction on animal husbandry had played a role in the migration to the cities. As more grain was imported the accent shifted to the less labour-intensive animal husbandry.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">For most cities in the northern Netherlands was the sixteenth century until the year 1580 especially a century of stagnation. Amsterdam on the other hand, grew strong. In 1514 it counted hardly more than 10,000 inhabitants, were in 1570 that there are about 30,000. However, this was one of the few exceptions to the general pattern. Almost all cities, including the formerly thriving IJssel cities, were smaller, or remained about the same in terms of the number of inhabitants. The really big cities all layers in the southern Netherlands. Antwerp was with 85,000 inhabitants in 1560 by far the largest. Lead counted in the year of the siege (1573/74) only about 12,500 souls.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" len="175" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"> [2]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">During the decades after 1590 grew almost all Dutch cities explosive. This growth was possible only by migration. During the early modern period lay in every city the death rate higher than the birth rate. The poor hygienic conditions, the high infant mortality rate and the frequent occurrence of epidemic diseases in the cities were there to blame. Without migration from the countryside every city would shrink. Before 1670 also hit the plague to several times. In Amsterdam in 1602 died about 10,000 people, mostly poor, to an epidemic disease. Epidemic diseases Lead found in 1599, in 1604, in 1624 and in 1636. Only the economic success did attract migrants to the cities in large numbers. ==Agriculture<span class="mw-editsection" len="338" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The agriculture was in the Republic on a relatively modern and efficiently performed. Innovations in agriculture and horticulture led to good yields. Examples include the applied methods of drainage and the manyreclaimed land, cattle feed and the improved the methods used to restore atrophied soils fertility. The new techniques were in the eighteenth century during the so-called agrarian revolution widely imitated in England.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Agriculture was in the Republic the largest sector in the economic life. It had a small half of the total workforce. The country can roughly be divided in two parts: the wet but fertile coastal provinces in the West and North and the sandy and infertile land counties in the South and East. In the early sixteenth century the grain yields were low and could be but a small surplus markets. Revenue remained low due to a lack of specialisation and the lack of investment. The essen and degraded lands in the East were common managed by marken. By far the most important crop was rye. The inklinkende country in the coastal provinces caused a transformation of mainly arable farming to livestock mainly. Farmers were forced to supplement their income with other activities, such as, for example, freshwater fishing, hunting and rietsnijden.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">From the late fifteenth century the population grew in the Netherlands and in Europe and prices rose. Amsterdam also developed itself to bread basket of Europe by importing cheap grain from Baltic Sea ports. Due to the low grain prices in the coastal provinces cereal production for the cultivation of horticultural crops and intensive industrial crops such as hemp, flax and oil seeds. In the coastal provinces formed the farmers specialized in livestock farming the most important group. Livestock farming can be divided in the seasonal fattening of animals and dairy farming. With the seasonal fattening of animals were imported from outside the Republic to skinny oxen on Dutch meadows to be fattened. The meat was exported after the slaughter for the most part. The dairy farmers kept cows for the production of cheese and butter, also mostly destined for export. The rising prices and a growing wealth of urban merchants pulled investment in agriculture to. In North Holland were a large number of speculative investment in land reclamation projects, including of theBeemsterand Purmer, Schermer . In the City of Groningen made sure when the excavation of peat moor areas for the extraction of peat, a fertile top layer was left. Here created new agricultural settlements, the peat colonies. Also to increase investment to produce farmers did. By the amount of livestock manure in the coastal provinces there was also much to fertilize fields that yield increased further. These developments remained In the land provinces by devastating military activities during the eighty years ' war, the vast rangelands and the common management of the essen. From the mid-17th century started the agricultural depression which lasted until the middle of the eighteenth century and struck all farmers in Europe. ==Commerce and industry<span class="mw-editsection" len="350" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == The sail out of a number of East Indiamen (1600), Hendrik Cornelisz.Vroom.<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">During much of the seventeenth century Dutch dominated, traditional skilled navigators and map makers, world trade, a position which, to a lesser extent, was occupied by thePortuguese and the Spaniards. Netherlands has this dominant position in world trade was able to maintain approximately a century and a half.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the decades after the fall of Antwerp the Dutch economy grew explosively, trade the most. Historians speak of an "economic miracle". The speed and severity of the economic developments are fairly unique in history. Major causes of the growth were:

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In 1602, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) founded. This company got the Dutch monopoly on trade with Asia and would preserve this nearly two centuries. It would be the world's largest trading company of the seventeenth century. Spices were imported in large quantities and supplied generate large profits, on the other hand by the great efforts which had to be delivered and the risks that this involved not to saturate, on the other hand, went by the demand for these products. Moreover, the VOC consisted largely of trade within Asia. When the English the profitable opium trade between the poppy fields in Bengal and the markets on Java and took over in China, the Dutch East India Company could no longer create big profits.
 * the flow of skilled migrants to the North as a result of the loss of the South
 * the conquest of the River area, making contacts with the German hinterland were restored
 * the blockades by the Dutch fleet on the Scheldt, the Ems and the Flemish coast

In 1609 founded the Amsterdam Stock Exchange.<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In 1609 the Amsterdam Stock Exchange was founded (a century earlier than the counterpart in London), which, together with the Amsterdam Exchange bank established in the same year of this city would make the financial centre of Europe soon. The financial infrastructure of the Netherlands was favorable for forming a trading nation. Unlike in other countries, where the nobility and the capabilities and the Board effectively monopolised trade looked down, there was a lot of capital available for companies in Netherlands. The stock exchange, a relatively efficient administration, the willingness of the bankers to take risks and not a Government that looked down on the trade but which stimulated provided a unique investment environment for Europe.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Holland also dominated trade in bulk goods between European countries (where more than a century before the Hanseatic cities still had played a prominent role). Geographical aspects also played a role, on the one hand, the convenient location, at the crossroads of East-west and North-South routes, on the other hand, the easy access to a largeGerman hinterland via the Rhine. Dutch traders shipped wine and salt from Portugal to France and the countries around the Baltic Sea and returned with especially grain,Swedish powder, wood, iron and weapons, but also many other goods for a part again to countries around the Mediterranean Sea were transported.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Trade on the Baltic Sea (also known as the mother trade) was an important foundation of prosperity. The King of Denmark, the man who controlled the Sont, was an important ally.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The Dutch industrial potential also rose. Shipyards and sugarrefineries are good examples of this. Thanks to the use of the crankshaft in windmills, for the first time in 1594, could very much wood, needed for building ships, sawn with sawmills. This also brought the timber trade with the Baltic Sea countries.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The herring fishing was a very important source of income. As more land was taken into production (partly by side canals by a number of Lakes), the grain production and livestock farming in importance.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Although the seventeenth century as a whole was a period of almost unlimited economic growth, there are various stages to point to. Between 1621 and 1632 persistent recession and stagnation. Then restored the economy is hesitant. The share of European trade reduced; However, there was an increased demand for Dutch products and colonial were opposite.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The success of the Dutch aroused the envy of the surrounding countries. After a fierce competition, which gave rise to some wars, the dominant position of Holland pass into the hands of the English. These wars were fought mainly at sea with England. ==Social structure; walks of life<span class="mw-editsection" len="367" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the Netherlands of the 17th century was mainly due to income social status determined. Differed In this respect the Netherlands from neighboring countries, where social status was still largely dimensioned to origin, leading to the French Revolution so would continue. Social classesexisted, but in a new way.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The aristocracy, or nobility, had sold its privileges largely to the cities, where merchants and their money had the say. In addition, the number of nobles in Netherlands with land and power, so other than in name, particularly low in comparison to neighbouring countries. There are two reasons: from the 13th century was the feudal system in the low countries crumbled rapidly. Many SERF farmers were mined or reclaimed as free man pulled to the new country, where they were lesser. Starting from the 15th century was also bought up by wealthy merchants, which a lot of land in lease expenditure. In the 16th century it was the conscious politics of the Habsburg monarchs been to nobles in all kinds of administrative functions to the emerging class of university-trained Jurists, whose dependence and thus loyalty was higher.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The clergy also had not too much worldly influence: the Catholic Church was suppressed to a certain extent since the beginning of the eighty years ' war; the young Protestant Church was divided.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">This is not to say that the aristocrats had not on social status. On the contrary, it was rather that wealthy merchants joined the nobility by acquiring and bought a coat of arms and seal. Aristocrats also mixed themselves with members of other classes to them appropriate way in their living. To do this, they used to marry daughters to wealthy merchants, they went themselves in trade or a public or military office as they accepted a salary to earn. Merchants also interest for public office, since this could provide them greater economic power and more prestige.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">A university education was pathways to such a public function. Wealthy merchants and aristocrats sent their sons on a so-called Grand Tour (great way) through Europe. This young then visited universities in various European capitals, often accompanied by a private teacher, maybe a man of science.

<p lang="en" len="451" style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The here described mixing of patrician aristocrats and the most came in the second half of the century.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Directly under the aristocrats and patricians came the affluent bourgeoisie, which consisted of Protestant ministers, lawyers, doctors, industrialists and senior officials. A lower status was assigned to small, specialized craftsmen, administrative staff and self-employed farmers. Below were experienced workers, domestic servants and other service personnel. At the foot of the pyramid stood the ' paupers ', by Karl Marx later called theproletariat : impoverished country people, many of whom tried their luck in the cities, as a beggar or day labourer.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The poor care and medical treatment was in Netherlands for that time particularly well arranged. These were in previous centuries especially a task of guilds and of the Catholic Church. After the Reformation the local government took this work largely about.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Because so much wealth, or lack of one's social status, certain goods the stands less diffuse than elsewhere. Finally, could the Fortune times. Also the Calvinism, that humility as a major virtue praises, there had much to do with it. These trends are remarkably resistant proven. The current Dutch society, although much more secularized, egalitarian is still seen by many as outstanding. ===Position of women<span class="mw-editsection" len="351" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Women enjoyed in the Republic considerably more freedom than elsewhere in Europe. Even unmarried women were allowed to move freely on the street without be accompanied by men. While in most countries simply was found to Save women in the Republic was not tolerated. In the coastal provinces women mostly dominated the streets. [http://www.microsofttranslator.com/bv.aspx?from=nl&to=en&a=http%3A%2F%2Fnl.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FArie_van_Deursen A.Th. van Deursen]  says the following: "In the coastal provinces was a large part of the male working population working as fisherman or sailor. ... If it ever been false is that women only housekeeping did and had pawned their heart and soul to the clean scrubbing the pavement or in the Holland of the seventeenth century. The Division of labor between men and women could in the numerous families of seafarers not unlike disproportionately burdensome for the woman fall out, that as long as her husband on the water was traveling about the roles of head of the family and breadwinner with that of housewife and mother had to unite. "<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" len="175" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"> [3]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Moreover, foreign visitors are surprised about the Dutch cleanliness. Women spent anywhere as much care and energy to clean scrubbing the pavement and lapping of the Windows. ===Experiences of foreigners<span class="mw-editsection" len="359" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p lang="en" len="443" style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Jonathan  Israel  gives in the introduction to his book the Republic, 1477-1806 a list of characteristics and innovations of the Republic during the golden age which foreigners are surprised.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">On the economic front there was the size and efficiency of shipping and trade, and the high development of industry and financial institutions. Visitors praised the orderliness and cleanliness of the beautiful cities, tolerance on religious and intellectual area, the orphan-, arms-and hospitals, prisons and the low crime. Noteworthy was in their eyes the curtailment of the power of the churches, the authority that exercised a State ruled by citizens over the army, the abundance of scientific collections, libraries and publishers, and also the achievements in the field of art, science and philosophy. Foreigners were usually shocked by the multitude of churches, the excessive staff and freedom that women, Jews enjoyed, the middle-class mentality and lack of hierarchy. It took foreign visitors struggling to maids to recognize as such to their clothing. Peers found it shocking that people of lesser pointed to them stand the word. The United Provinces were mostly regarded as a hotbed of disorder.

<p lang="en" len="1630" style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The Republic was the leading technological power: trekschuit, street lighting, new locks, shipbuilding methods, looms, sawmills, other windmills pulled visitors such as Czar Peter the great to.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Aim for "freedom" was been a motive for the Rebellion . Nowhere was there such a "free and secure State," wrote Romeyn de Hooghe, painter and propagandist of William III in 1703. This does not mean that progressive thinkers as Hugo de Groot, Episcopius, Spinoza, Descartes and others on the borders of this freedom have escalated. However, they praised the relatively great freedom. Descartes wrote that there is no other country was "où l'on puisse Sanjay d'une entière liberté si" (where one can enjoy a complete freedom). ==Religion<span class="mw-editsection" len="338" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == Westerkerk in Amsterdam, built byHendrick de Keyser (1565-1621).<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">A majority in the northern provinces was by now calvinist, or at least until the Dutch Reformed Churchbelonged. This church was no paragon of harmony. In the beginning of the 17th century the Republic torn apart by bitter contradictions between the ' preciezen ' and ' rekkelijken '. Latter, the remonstrants, did not believe in predestination(predestination to heaven or hell, regardless of one's lifestyle) and argued for freedom of conscience. Their more dogmatic opponents, who called themselves fuss, won the advocates at the Synod of dort. The large number of branches within the Dutch Protestantism will probably helped that the mutual contradictions over time afzwakten and thus the mutual tolerance again rose. After the Synod of Dordrecht comes under the conservative Calvinist preachers a movement to further development and dissemination of the biblical ideal in doctrine and life in ' bevindelijke ' sense. This movement is known as the Further Reformation. The well-known Professor of Gisbertus Voetius was the big man of this movement. The roots of this movement lie in the work of the Zeeland Willem Teellinckpreacher. His voluminous programme to reformation of the national life he summarized in 1627 together in Noodtwendigh Vertoogh, a book of about 500 pages.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Also, the humanismthat occurred was in the 16th century and that Desiderius Erasmus in if not the spiritual father still had an important advocate, still had much influence and contributed to a climate of tolerance. It was not easy to the mentioned tolerance also to demonstrate to Catholics . Religion had (in addition to political and economic motives) played an important role in the revolt against Spain, the eighty years ' war.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the course of the seventeenth century took the tolerance towards other religions far. The year 1630 is designated by  Israel  as a dividing line. Then remonstranten, Lutherans, Catholics and Jews enjoyed considerably more freedom than before. With money could often be achieved a great deal. This enabled Catholics after payment of bribes to get done that keeping a wrong turn a blind eye (in a Church) was allowed or that their children were baptized by a Catholic priest. Some cities were more tolerant than others. Rotterdam and Amsterdam were relatively tolerant. In cities where the fuss were in power, including Leiden and Haarlem, remained a few decades the habit for instructing the wrong with violence impossible. Public-sector employment for Catholics remained unattainable. The same applied to Anabaptists and Jews.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The relatively large tolerance was not of principle; commercial interests and indifference also played a role. In any case, there were large numbers of people who were persecuted for their religion in surrounding countries to Netherlands to live in relative freedom. These include the (often wealthy) Jewish merchants from Portugal (theSephardim). Came from France after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 many Huguenots and Jews; many of them were specialized craftsmen and scholars. That was not unlimited tolerance encounteredphilosopher Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677)-it was because of his views by the Jewish community emitted. Wisely he let his controversial Tractatus theologico-politician appear anonymous in Latin, and that too was not without risk. Radical freethinkers as Adriaen Koerbagh were also given by the Government to make with repression; He ended his life in the Amsterdam rasphuis. ==Culture<span class="mw-editsection" len="338" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">As a result of the rebellion also in cultural terms the low countries fell apart. In North and South developed its own culture. The South came entirely in the grip of the Counter-Reformation. The censorship was exceedingly strict; the intellectual debate, there was nearly silent. In the North, In the Republic, has been a completely different development. Here was a mixture of Calvinist, other Protestant, Catholic and humanist movements, which are distinguished precisely by this diversity of culture in the surrounding countries. The Baroque did only limited influence, on any exceptions in the literature after (as the poet Joost van den Vondel). The exuberance of the Baroque did not fit with the severity of the largely Calvinistic population.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Although culture also in the Republic was primarily a matter of the well-off, could a relatively large part of the population take part in it. Many were able to afford the purchase of a painting. Many had a Bible and psalm books in their possession. In addition there were all kinds of cheap printingsuch as pamphlets. The bourgeoisie formed the driving force behind the new cultural developments, and then mostly in the Western provinces: first and foremost in Holland, to a lesser extent Zeeland and Utrecht. Was it in other countries especially rich aristocrats who were patron of the arts, in the low countries was their that this role was taken over by wealthy merchants and other patricians.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Centres of cultural-literary activity were formed by schutterij and Chambers of rooms. The primary task of the Sable rows was defending a city in times of need and performing police tasks, but in addition they formed a meeting place for people from the moneyed middle class, who proudly held a prominent position, and there are a fair amount for about to snap to allow this. The rederijkers formed associations (rooms) in the cities, which sought to organize literary activities, as closely and stage art and debates, often in the form of competitions. The cities were proud of their Chamber of rhetoric and supported this. ==Education<span class="mw-editsection" len="340" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In almost all cities and larger towns in the golden age for private primary schools existed until about ten year olds and five-it was some quality control by the authorities in larger cities. Here learned children (fees apply) in about two years reading and math, and possibly write after another year or two. Starting point in the Republic was that every person had to be able to read the Bible. In addition it was for trade, of course, essential that could count, writing, accounting and controlled one or more languages. But there was a difference between urban and rural areas. The above control was made mainly in the cities. The school existed usually from one local. Children with about the same abilities were sitting together at one table. It was worked independently and when it was finished they got new work by the schoolmaster. The quality was highly dependent on what parents were able to pay. In villages was the quality usually less. There was a little counting, which read and written and the younger children received help from the older and, of course, was also here the necessary attention to the religion.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Latin school In the cities did not exist rarely also the possibility to the Latin school, where-in addition to Latin-of course also write, ancient history and eloquence was taught. The emphasis on Latin was evident: the children had to be prepared for the University, where everything in Latin was taught. In second place was the education of classical antiquity by the Latin school retrieved. Latin was the official language of the (Catholic) Church and all international correspondence happened also in that language. In addition there was attention to Greek, history, rhetoric (eloquence) dialectic (logical reasoning), philosophy, religion, singing, musica (theoretical music theory), aritmetica, geometry and astronomy. ===Universities<span class="mw-editsection" len="345" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The University of Leiden in 1575 was the first of the northern Netherlands. It is believed that the choice of Lead was a gift of William of Orange to the city after the Leids ontzet, although there is no evidence found is<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" len="175" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;">[4] .This Protestant State University taught initially only Protestant theology (the new Republic had a strong need for well trained clerics), eloquence, ancient history, Greek and Latin and mathematics. Because Lead was one of the first Protestant universities, he withdrew from all over Northern Europe (where many wars prevailed) Protestant students. There the Flemish humanist and teaching European celebrities like Justus Lipsius, the French historian, literary historian Josephus Justus Scaliger, Hugo de Groot, the lawyer, the Flemish literary Daniel Heinsius, the mathematician Willebrord Snellius, the linguist Gerard Vossius and the late in the 17th century Dutch physician and botanist Herman Boerhaave. Known were also the theologians Franciscus Gomarus and his opponent Jacobus Arminius, which had a hooglopend conflict that resulted in gains for the hard, Gomaristen ' Calvinist ' and persecution of the remonstrant ' Arminianism ' closer in affection.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Leiden University knew three main faculties, theology, law and medicine. In addition there was especially teaching in philosophy and knowledge of the classical Roman and Greek history. Furthermore, teaching in the seven liberal arts (grammar of Latin and Greek, dialectica, musica, aritmetica, geometria, rhetoric, astronomia). These boxes were on virtually every University in that time. However, the screen was new in Leiden school. The screens to follow a precise mathematical pattern served. Simon Stevin, the curriculum for the "Damen Mathematique"-an engineering school with mathematics and applied physics in the Dutch for surveying and fortress construction, the only box in the vernacular. Just like the schermles above all these boxes had a military significance. They came to meet Prince Maurits ' need for knowledge of beschietings techniques and fortress construction related to the eighty years ' war against Spain.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the course of the 17th century followed the creation of the Protestant universities of franeker (1585), Groningen (1614), Amsterdam (1632), Utrecht (1636) and Harderwijk (1648).

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">A Athenaeum Illustre or illustrious school was a school for higher education without promotion law, one had to go to a University. Was taught by professors. Athenaea there were among others in AmsterdamandDeventer , Breda. ==Literature<span class="mw-editsection" len="341" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the 17th century the Centre of literary activity shifted from the southern to the northern Netherlands. This was partly due to the fact that many artists and intellectuals during the eighty years ' war, and especially after the fall of Antwerp in 1585 the Spanish rulers fled.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Story lines were taken from the Bible and the national history. The most famous piece from this period is the Gijsbrecht van Aemstel, in 1637 written by Joost van den Vondel. The piece is situated in the Amsterdam of around 1300, and recounts of the disasters that threatened the city in its existence after the death of Floris V. The Gijsbrecht was performed annually on new year's day in Amsterdam for centuries, a tradition that lasted until 1968 .

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">More than other art forms would be influenced by the Baroque literature. As the 17th century progressed the level of literary production took off. Writers began to imitate their predecessors. Also more and more literary styles were formalized.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The most renowned writers of the 17th century were Gerbrand Adriaenszoon Bredero, Jacob Cats, Pieter corneliszoon Hooft and Joost van den Vondel. ==Architecture<span class="mw-editsection" len="343" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Also the architecture polite heyday in the golden age. The booming economy meant that the cities rose strongly in size. There were new built town halls and warehouses . Many cities also showed a new build waag .Merchants who had amassed a fortune, ordered the construction of a new building, with richly ornamented facade, along one of the many new canalsthat were dug for transport and defence purposes. New country houses were also built, but not in large numbers.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">From 1595 many reformed churches were built. Many of them are still eye-catching buildings in a city.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Especially between 1647 and 1672 was widely built. After several decades of austerity now risen the most monumental structures, with lavish ornaments. This happened not only in Amsterdam, but also in the Hague, Leiden and Haarlem. Many new canals were built in these decades. The influence of the Dutch Arts on European culture peaked.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the beginning of the 17th century still dominated the style of the late Gothic, combined with renaissance motifs. After several decades, the influence of the French classicism : the emphasis was placed on strong vertical elements, the use of ornamentation took off, stone got the preferred over brick. In the last decades of the 17th century, this sobriety more and more stressed. Around 1670 was the entrance of a House has become the most prominent feature of a façade, with columns on each side and possibly a balcony above it, but no further decoration.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The most famous Dutch architects of the 17th century were Jacob van Campen, Lieven de Key and Hendrick de Keyser. ==Painting<span class="mw-editsection" len="344" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">As mentioned earlier the clientele of the Dutch artist was very different from that of their foreign colleagues (see also culture section above). This had influence on the issues that we chose and the style of painting.Another difference with foreign countries was that many canvases were not manufactured in command, but through auctions and art dealers were dropped off. This approach worked specialization in hand, causing the just not brilliant painters could concentrate on a theme of its own choice and in that genre could excel.

<p lang="en" len="23" style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Popular genres were:

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Mixed forms of these categories also came for. Also shown were often allegorical representations, shows so in which objects with a symbolic meaning to the main topic are added. So could a still life for example a skull, an hourglass and an extinct contain candle, each a symbol of mortality. Seasons were often depicted by a human activity to get images that was typical for that time of year: ice skating, sowing, harvesting, etc. Images also often had a moralistic load under the surface. ===History Paintings<span class="mw-editsection" len="346" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">This category includes not only paintings that depict actual historical events, but also representations of Biblical, mythological, literary and allegorical representations. Less than in surrounding countries, where the noble or spiritual instill clients often drove their awe at the viewer's on the one painted in Netherlands, large, dramatic, historical or biblical scenes. Instead, painters, mainly in the northern Netherlands, in the touch of the Viewer by him or her to share a scene of profound intimacy.
 * history paintings
 * portraits (both individual and group portraits)
 * landscapes and cityscapes
 * still lifes
 * everyday scenes (this is called also called genre pieces )

<p lang="en" len="598" style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Rembrandt and Rubens are representative examples of the large differences in style between painters of the Republic, the northern provinces, on the one hand, and Flanders, the southern provinces, on the other.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Many important Dutch painters are inspired and influenced, at least in their early years, by Italian examples. Copies of Italian masterpieces circulated here. This suggested certain compositional schemes. Also the treatment of light and dark (chiaroscuro), where the Dutch themselves absolutely masters in would be, was in part due to Italian predecessors such as Caravaggio. Also pulled one self to Italy to see the examples for yourself. As a special select acted the Utrecht Caravaggisti like Hendrick ter Brugghen, Dirck van Baburen and Gerard van Honthorst. ===(Group-) portraits<span class="mw-editsection" len="350" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === Rembrandt: the night watch (1642)<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Painted portraits in the 17th century in the low countries were highly sought after. Rich traders and patricians enjoyed portraying. Also many contracts awarded by the senior members of a militia or governing body.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Especially in the first half of the century were portraits of very formal, and tight construction. Often a group sat around a table, and was everyone's gaze to the spectator-oriented.Clothing became very minutely depicted. This also applied to furniture and any other objects, so as to underline the social position of the sitter. Later in the century, group scenes more lively and the colors brighter.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Scientists often posed seated between their instruments and study objects. Doctors were shown several times during a ' anatomy lesson ': grouped around a corpse, while one of them college gave. The most famous of these is the anatomy lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp (1632, Mauritshuis, the Hague).

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Boards of Directors saw themselves like depicted around a table, looking serious. The sober dark clothing stressed on the other hand their rigor and humility, but made by carefully pencilled-on sophistication and clearly that they are not cut to the least belonged. Families enjoyed immortalize in their luxurious homes.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Especially in Amsterdam and Haarlem were many shooters pieces manufactured. The principals posed as mighty, joyeuze, dashing men of the world. First many companies who were seated around a table. Later the mise en scene more dynamic. The most famous shooters piece is the shooting company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq, better known as the night watch (1642, Rijksmuseum,Amsterdam). In Amsterdam, most shooters pieces finally come into the possession of the municipality. Many of them are now part of the permanent collection of the Amsterdam Museum. The Haarlem shooters pieces are almost all in the Frans Hals Museum. As many as 18 out of 20 preserved Haarlem shooters portraits are there to admire. Five of them are manufactured by Frans Hals: colossal canvases, which together 68 individual portraits show, painted in the famous, over time becoming looser and virtuozere painting style Neck ' trademark was.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Many group portraits shown anyone who wanted to be paid the painter apart, which then becomes the place of the person in the painting left depend on the contribution: with a generous payment could with assure themselves of a place in the foreground, and was depicted in full uniform from head to feet; one had contributed modest, then one soon played a part in the background, the head just visible between bystanders. ===Everyday scenes<span class="mw-editsection" len="351" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === Johannes Vermeer Milk Maid(1658-1660)<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Many genre paintings, which at first glance only everyday life showed, were in fact illustrations of old proverbs and sayings or had a moralistic message, which nowadays is not always easy to figure out. All walks of life were portrayed. Genre paintings provide much insight into how one in the 17th century in the low countries went through life. Such as on the right by Johannes Vermeer, the Milk maid . ===Landscapes and cityscapes<span class="mw-editsection" len="361" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Also painting landscapes was a beloved pastime in the 17th century. In the beginning of the golden age was much painted in the style of 16th-century predecessors from theSouthern Netherlands, particularly in Antwerp. This Flemish and Ballad had little importance is attached to realism. Towels were often manufactured in the workshop and were partly shot to the fantasy. Now this would soon change: one went now paint what one had itself observed, often on the basis of sketches that were made on location. The horizon was now often kept low, leaving more space came for the characteristic Dutch cloudy skies which one impressive took place, with their own light. Dune formations were among the favorite subjects, but also river landscapes with wide flood plains, where cows grazed on, a silhouette of a city on the background.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Also winter landscapes made one likes. Of course also the sea was an inexhaustible source of inspiration. Finally lived many Dutch people of the fruits of the sea or of overseas trade, was the sea regularly a formidable opponent, which was increasingly more land stolen anyway, but also often, however erratic, ally as Dutch naval heroes celebrated their triumphs. Large canvases of famous naval battles, told of a Dutch marine on the tips of her can.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Architecture also fascinated the Dutch, particularly of churches. Painters, Interior or exterior of a building is monitored as closely as possible. As the century progressed, new insights into the workings of the enthusiastic perspective applied. ===Still Lifes<span class="mw-editsection" len="341" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === A still life by Balthasar van der Ast<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Especially still lifes offered a painter (and a single painter) the opportunity to display their skills in the convincing and very detailed and with realistic light effects portraying textures and surfaces. All kinds of drinks and food, displayed on a table, silver cutlery, fine table linen that depended in folds, all posed a challenge for fine painters. Especially painters from Leiden twinkled in this genre from. Still lifes were also often commissioned. Rich people wanted to look back on such a still life like their valuable possessions so they could show off with this. There was much use of symbolism in the still lifes.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">To the famous Dutch painters of the 17th century include Ferdinand Bol, Albert Cuyp, Gerard Dou, Carel Fabritius, Govert Flinck, Jan van Goyen, Frans Hals, Pieter de Hooch,Pieter Pieterszoon Lastman, Jan Lievens, Nicolaes Maes, Gabriel Metsu, Adriaen van Ostade, Paulus Potter, Rembrandt harmenszoon van Rijn, [http://www.microsofttranslator.com/bv.aspx?from=nl&to=en&a=http%3A%2F%2Fnl.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPieter_Jansz._Saenredam Pieter Jansz. Saenredam], Jan Steen and Johannes Vermeer. ==Sculpture<span class="mw-editsection" len="345" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == Mercury by Artus Quellinus<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The Dutch performance in the field of sculpture are less highly than those in painting and architecture. There were also less sculptures manufactured than in surrounding countries. On the other hand, this was explained by the total absence of it in Protestant churches; Finally, the reformation was partly derived from the aversion to the images worship in the Catholic Church. On the other hand, had this to do with the small demand for images from aristocratic circles. Sculptures were made for government buildings and the exterior of churches. Individuals often gave command to include the creation of a bust, often to a facade to beautify. There was also demand for grave monuments.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Dutch sculptors of the 17th century were among other things: Hendrick de Keyser, Artus Quellinus and Rombout Verhulst. ==Music<span class="mw-editsection" len="337" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the 17th century, one likes to music in the domestic sphere. Notable instruments were: the lute, the harpsichord, the viola da gamba and the traverso. There were many songs books published. Musical influences from England, France and Italy, the overtone in Dutch music. Starting from the middle of the century were more and more lyrical dramas,Ballets and opera's performed in the Amsterdam Theatre, which was opened in 1638. The dislike that Calvinists of frivolity had obstructed the free development of music, andorgellmuziek was excluded from services in the reformed churches. As a result, would be the talented organist-composer Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck more influence in Germany than among his own countrymen. Other renowned Dutch composers of the 17th century were Constantijn Huygens and Jacob van Eyck. ==Science<span class="mw-editsection" len="341" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The intellectual open-mindedness and tolerance to pulled thinkers from all over Europe. Especially the renowned University of Leiden became a meeting place for them. A striking feature of the scholarly activities at the time of the golden age is her mostly practical character.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The intellectual debate ran in the Republic for that in the surrounding countries. So lived and worked the French mathematician and philosopher René Descartes in Netherlands from 1628 to 1649 in Leiden and Utrecht.Descartes published his major works in the Republic. For several decades it was debate between the supporters and opponents of the Cartesian mechanistic worldview the main intellectual debate in Europe. That became the Republic conducted much earlier than elsewhere. At the end of the seventeenth century settled an important forerunner of the lighting, Pierre Bayle, in Rotterdam.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Dutch lawyers were famous for their knowledge of international maritime law and commercial law. Hugo de Groot (Hugo Grotius) laid the foundations for international law. He developed the concept of the Free Seas orMare liberum, which was hotly contested by England (see: English Shipping laws), that in the course of the 17th century Dutch main competitor was the dominion over the oceans of the world. Also formulated laws, in his book De iure belli ac pacis (On right of war and peace), to regulate conflicts between Nations.

Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Christiaan Huygens was a famous mathematician, physicist and astronomer. He found the pendulum clock, with which the time could be measured more accurately. On the basis of his astronomical observations he explained the rings of Saturn. He conceived the wave theory of light and contributed much to mechanics.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In 1609 in Middelburg the so-called Dutch Viewer (a first binoculars) by Hans Lippershey Zacharias Jansen or built. This discovery brought forth great sensation and was initially thought of as a weapon of war. However, they also quickly found application in astronomy. Galileo Galilei discovered in 1610, already a year later, with his telescope, an improved version of the device, four of the moons of Jupiter. Also two types of microscopes were invented in Netherlands: the compound microscope by Zacharias Jansen and a different type with beading lens by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek. With its systematic observations of micro-organisms laid the basis for the van Leeuwenhoek cell biology. Jan Swammerdamimproved the microscope and discovered, among other things, the red blood cells.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Important Dutch hydraulic engineers were also mathematician Simon Stevin, which was designed for fractures and the decimal number system, which made it possible to count numbers with broken much faster. Jan Adriaanszoon Leeghwater (1575-1650) carried out several major projects, such as inpolderings of the Beemster, to combat floods and to win.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Again due to the tolerant climate made publishing houses (including Elsevier) a large flowering time with it. Many books on religion, philosophy and science that were controversially found in other countries were therefore in Netherlands printed and secretly carried out abroad. Thus the low countries in the 17th century gradually more the Publisher of Europe. However, there was a strict regime for publications with regard to deviations from the official reformed doctrine, not Governments, like Johan de Witt, the censorship. A prominent victim of this censorship was Adriaan Koerbagh. ==Warfare<span class="mw-editsection" len="344" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the military field were innovations in the field of tactics and the fortress construction. Prince Maurits performed a tight discipline in the army in. Thanks to the economic revival could be paid for a larger army. In 1595, the army of the Republic 32,000 man, which for that time was much. The artillery was in the army an important part. Until 1648 was the martial art in the low countries the example for the rest of Europe. Krijgskundigen from all over Europe arrived in the Republic look.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">After 1672 were the Netherlands again the main battleground. Louis XIV 's wars were largely fought in the southern Netherlands. ==Colonial America<span class="mw-editsection" len="345" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Outside Europe it went the Republic for the wind. The United East India Company (VOC) and the Dutch West India Company obtained not only the monopoly on the spice trade, also dominated their ships the world's oceans. This was very much against the meaning of England, that after-diligent was on the economic success of the Republic. Although they both had fought against the Spanish during the eighty years ' war, the two countries were diametrically opposed when the Republic conquered a large colonial empire . This led to the English wars.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Short time seemed like the Republic very successful in Brazil. The Dutch were managed the coast between the mouth of the Amazon River and the São Francisco (a river South of Recife) on the Portuguese to conquer.Under Governor General Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen (1637-1644) was the lucrative sugar trade largely in Dutch hands.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Was conquered Curaçao in 1634. In 1648 were also Aruba and Bonaire in Dutch hands. A promising colony in North America was Nieuw-Amsterdam.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Also the prominent role that Netherlands would later play in the slave trade was the result of a series of conquests on the Portuguese. Trade routes of slaves in the seventeenth century ran largely through Elmina inGhana (Gold Coast) to Brazil and the Caribbean Islands. Elmina in 1637 was conquered, Axim in 1642. In 1641 was led by [http://www.microsofttranslator.com/bv.aspx?from=nl&to=en&a=http%3A%2F%2Fnl.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FCornelis_Jol Pieter Cornelisz. Jol also Angola ]conquered. ==Political structures<span class="mw-editsection" len="351" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == Merchant houses in Leiden.<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The political structure of the Republic got her batter between 1572 and 1609. There was clearly a rupture with the settings as that functioned under the Habsburgs. On paper it was signed in 1579 Union of Utrecht that settled the State Constitution. According to the Treaty on European Union, the Republic was aConfederation and the regions were sovereign. Important decisions were allowed only at unanimity in the States General are taken. In practice the Republic had rather the character of a Confederation under the leadership of Holland. Within the Republic was by far the most powerful, wealthiest and most influential Holland region. Each region had one vote in the States-General. Most of the decisions were taken by the States of Holland and a majority of the other regions. The States General also interfered with ecclesiastical matters, the Board of the generality lands and colonial expansion.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the early years of the new State was initially unclear and a talking point or for a Republican or a monarchist polity would be chosen. The States of Holland were in majority in favour of a State without frost. Given the dominant position of Holland, it is not surprising that the advocates of a Republic the longest straw pulled.Within the context of Europe as a whole was a remarkable and also revolutionary choice.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Johan van Oldenbarnevelt has, to a large extent, a mark on the political system such as that during the first decades after the assassination of William of Orange took shape. He was undeniably the political leader; the basic decisions in terms of foreign policy were taken by him. Ever stood in front Of Oldenbarnevelt the importance of Holland first. Recalcitrant provinces were sooner or later called to order. All regions of Holland were financially dependent. ==End of the golden age<span class="mw-editsection" len="355" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">After the first stadtholderless period and the third Dutch-English War became King James II of England dethroned by the English Parliament. His son-in-law, the Dutch stadtholder William III, married to Maryin 1689, was asked to also to be King of England . Willem had to, and fell with a largely Dutch army England inside. In a way, the Dutch were the last to have successfully invaded England ', in the sense of a successful large-scale military RAID, paid with Amsterdam's money. It went for a troonswisseling, not to annexation by England at the Dutch Republic. King William III had to be to the English Parliament to also give more power. With the reign of William and Mary Stuart (in Britain known as the ' Glorious Revolution ' of William and Mary) was an end to a very turbulent period in English history, in which also he remained immune to the English for good with their absolutist Kings.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">William III also brought his bankers and advisers to London and carried out economic improvements by. From his time began increasingly to outflank the Republic of England, especially in the colonial trade. That came in part because it went better functioning central authority in England now, ironically thanks to Walker reforms. ===Economic downturn<span class="mw-editsection" len="351" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Despite the fact that only the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 put finally to the role of great power, which the Republic had played throughout the seventeenth century, was the economic downturn already visible from the 1970s of the seventeenth century. That is, after the Dutch economy had reached its peak between 1647 and 1672, the Dutch now gradually lost ground. They continued to the world economy, however, control the trade in particular, up to ~ 1720.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">A large number of factors have contributed to this economic downturn. As the most important should be cited the emergence of other powers. In particular France were on the Mainland and England on sea becoming more powerful competitors for the Republic. France was under the hands of the Louis XIV again a country full of self confidence that also had the largest army on the European continent. England made in the second half of the seventeenth century a turbulent period. The excess of bloody conflicts between Parliament and the King meant the so-called Glorious Revolution in 1688 in which Parliament was able to significantly increase its power. Parliament decided to embark on new heavy investment in the army and the Navy in particular.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The rise of the two superpowers made this way for destabilization of the balance of power and had two important consequences. Because of fear of the other saw the Republic was forced to go along with an expensive arms race that would demand a fair toll on the Treasury. On the one hand, this meant higher taxes and, on the other hand, cost more for the army which led to a larger national debt.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Second, there was by the disturbed balance of power has been a new wave of protectionism. The Republic had a small home market and was aided by a complete free market. Free trade anywhere in the world was the basis for the success of the Republic. Protectionism was, in turn, a consequence of the prevailing mercantilist thought noting that import charges would come only benefit the country.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Three other factors should, however, be brought forward. As first took place within the Republic a negative development with regard to the wage-price ratio. Unlike other countries, there was a big rigidity of wages. In addition, prices fell steadily. Secondly, the widely acclaimed tolerance of the Republic also its downside. In the second half of the seventeenth century began the pluralistic society of the Republic no longer to bear fruit because there had been large conflicts of interest which culminated in rigidity. In this light can be the third factor cited. The painstaking consultation led to a decline in innovation, one of the factors that had made the Republic so energetic.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Also the demise of the Regentsoften attributed to complacency. They had it right, why should they change anything? They had not noticed or not it interested them that the rest of Europe not caught up and stopped them economically. So the Republic lost its leading function in almost all areas. ===Aftermath of the golden age<span class="mw-editsection" len="357" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The decline was relative to the neighbouring countries. After the golden age France and England took countries with more inhabitants and tools-the Republic quickly. The German areas recovered from the ravages of the thirty years ' war. Amsterdam wanted after the successful conquest of England by William III in the Glorious Revolution no longer pay for military operations. So lost the Republic territory (around Geldern) to Prussia.Netherlands remained still the richest country in the world. Textile business and investing gave more return than do anything else. For example, Dutch capital was invested in the industrial revolution in England. That France and England were not previously gone beyond the Republic came because they were too busy with domestic problems as revolutions and wars.