Origin of the subsurface of the Netherlands

The emergence of the subsurface of the Netherlands is part of the geological history since the creation of the Earth. It is a complex sequence of times of mountains and basin formation, erosion and sedimentation in and around Netherlands, evolving under the influence of plate tectonics and changes in climate and sea level stand. The present Dutch landscape is largely formed in the last 150,000 years: the last two ice ages from the Pleistocene and the Holocene, the currentgeological epoch. Over 2/3 of the surface is formed by Holocene deposits. The drowning during the Holocene history of the Rhine-Maas-delta Zeeland, the Wadden Sea and estuaries, the environment was of great importance for the habitation history of Netherlands. In turn is influenced the current occupation of Dutch landscape (polders, dikes), especially in the last 1000 years.



Content
[hide] *1 Introduction  ==Introduction[ Edit] == For the genesis of the subsurface of the Netherlands, over what period of geological history it is also considered, are getting the following factors:
 * Precambrian 2
 * 3 Paleozoic
 * 3.1 Temperature gradient of the last 542 Ma
 * Cambrian 3.2
 * 3.3 Ordovician
 * 3.4 Silurian
 * 3.5 Devonian
 * 3.6 Carboniferous
 * 3.6.1 lower Carboniferous
 * 3.6.2 late Carboniferous
 * 3.7 Perm
 * 4 Mesozoic
 * 4.1 Trias
 * 4.2 Jura
 * 4.3 Chalk
 * 5 Cenozoic
 * 5.1 Tertiary
 * 5.2 Temperature gradient of the last 65 Ma
 * 5.2.1 Paleocene
 * 5.2.2 Eocene
 * 5.2.3 Oligocene
 * 5.2.4 Miocene
 * 5.2.5 Pliocene
 * 5.3 temperature of Pliocene to recent
 * 5.4 Quaternary
 * 5.4.1 Pleistocene
 * 5.4.1.1 Pre-Saalian
 * 5.4.1.2 Saalian
 * 5.4.1.3 Eemian
 * 5.4.1.4 absorption Weichselian
 * 5.4.2 Holocene
 * 5.4.2.1 Preboreal and Boreal
 * 5.4.2.2 Atlanticum
 * 5.4.2.3 Subboreaal
 * 5.5 Palaeogeography during the Subboreaal
 * Subatlanticum 5.5.1
 * 5.6 Palaeogeography during the Subatlanticum
 * 6 external links

For the youngest geological time come to that the presence of land ice and human interventions at. ==Precambrian[ Edit] == Netherlands are never found In Precambrian rocks. This is the exact location of the area is not known, however, the continental plate on which is Netherlands, lay at the end of the Precambrian between Scandinavia and Greenland on the southern hemisphere, probably around 60 ° South latitude. ==Paleozoic[ Edit] == During the first part of the Paleozoic was the land mass spread over one large continent, Gondwana, the smaller continents Laurentia, Baltica, Siberia and a number of smaller Kazachstania and continental fragments such as North and South China.
 * the substrate: the using existing rock, sediment and inherited relief;
 * the prevailing climate: related to the global climate and latitude of Netherlands to the then (not constant because of plate tectonics);
 * tectonics: movements of the subsurface of local (along geological fractures) and regional (the North Sea basin) nature;
 * sea level movements: ranging with the world climate and the position of the continents on Earth.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">At the beginning of the Paleozoic era was the Paleogeographic location of Belgium and Netherlands on the southern hemisphere, somewhere near the current location of Patagonia. The current Europe is caused by different periods of orogeny which occurred during the Paleozoic: two

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Two remnants of the Caledonian mountains are important in the later development of Netherlands, namely the London-Brabant massif and the Rhine Massif. ===Temperature of the last 542 Ma<span class="mw-editsection" len="385" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === Temperature of the last 542 Ma. Based on strontium and oxygen, carbon isotope measurements of calcitische andcalcium phosphate 2128 fossils, mainly Brachiopods and someconodonten and belemnites.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" len="190" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"> [1] ===Cambrian<span class="mw-editsection" len="353" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the Cambrian era was probably the average temperature 20 ° c. The great southern continent of Gondwana lag of 30 ° South latitude to the Antarctic. It consisted of what is now Madagascar, India, New Zealand, Australia, Africa, South America and Florida are. Also, Avalonia, which is now a part of the British Isles and Newfoundland and Nova Scotia forms, lay to the South Pole.
 * Caledonian orogeny (480-400 million years ago)
 * Variscan orogeny (Variscan or) (380-270 million years ago)

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Laurentia (nowadays North America and Greenland), Scotland and Siberia moved towards the Equator and thus opened a new ocean, Iapetus Ocean.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Baltica (Scandinavia and the European part of Russia) was also dislodged of Gondwana but was still far to the South. Both parts of China (North and South) were separate and were covered by kratons a shallow tropical sea.

<p lang="en" len="315" style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The sea level was about 500 to 600 meters higher than it is today, making Western Europe from the Cambrian to the Silurian probably was covered by a sea.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Cambrian In Belgium is the oldest System, that crops out in the Ardennes (massifs of Rocroi, Givonneand Serpont Stavelot,) and in the massif of Brabant(upper reaches of the Zenne, Dijle and Gete). The rocks consist mainly of fyllieten schists, and quartzites. Cambrian In Netherlands is not on the surface. The piece of Earth's crust which is now Netherlands, stood probably around 60 ° south latitude. ===Ordovician<span class="mw-editsection" len="355" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">At the beginning of the Ordovician lag most of the land masses in the southern hemisphere. The continent of Laurentia was located around the Equator. To the East was a continent consisting of a part of present-day Siberia and Southeast lay Baltica (Scandinavia and the European part of Russia). Laurentia and Baltica were separated by the Iapetus Ocean. Still further South, one large continent Gondwanastood. Of these were pieces broken off, among other Avalonia, which quickly drove north.On this micro continent stood the land masses that nowadays the South of Ireland, the United Kingdom and the Benelux forms. Netherlands was on 40 ° south latitude.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">During the late Ordovician Baltica collided with Avalonia. This ensured that the Iapetus Ocean disappeared. The current South of Netherlands was part of a rapidly declining deep depression, the Brabant depression. This was filled with degradation products of the Caledonian mountains rising. ===Silurian<span class="mw-editsection" len="351" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">By the collision of Baltica began during the Silurian period Avalonia on a period of orogeny, whereby the southern edge of Baltica and Avalonia underwent large-scale folding. The current Ardennes are initially by this country's phase, which we know as the Caledonian orogeny, pleated. This orogeny was an important phase in the formation of northwestern Europe. At the end of this epoch came through the waiver caused an end to the marine conditions. Above the untapped layers are the oldest in Netherlands upper Silurian rocks. They are pleated and strongly compressed fine grained sediments turbiditische, deposited in a deep sea, which in drilling on the northern flank of theLondon-Brabant massif have been found.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" len="190" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"> [2] ===Devonian<span class="mw-editsection" len="351" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the Devonian , Baltica - Avalonia -together with with Laurentia, whereby Euramerica -also called Old Red Continent called-was formed, after which sediments as theEnglish Old Red Sandstone up to 6000 feet thick were formed. This can be found in Scotland, Northern England, Scandinavia and the East of North America.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">During the Devonian marine in Western Europe were mainly deposited kalken, which especially in the Eifel and Ardennes well are unlocked . In Zuid-Limburg Devonisch rock comes in layers between 300 and 1000 metres thick.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the late Devonian the southern Euramerica and Gondwana moved towards each other. In the Ordovician had some small continental fragments detached from Gondwana.For the Western European geology is only the microcontinent Armorica of interest. Armorica and other micro continents collided against Euramerica, creating a vast orogen from East to west was founded, the hercynian orogeny. Between them lay the Rhenohercynian basin, the Proto-Tethys Ocean. This basin was compressed by the collision.In an approximately 500 km wide zone that ran approximately East-West, were rocks, folded. By eliminating the Hercynian mountains that stretched from the Appalachiansto the edge of the Dnieper-Donjetsbekken in Ukraine. This orogeny lasted until in the late Carboniferous, about 80 million years, and caused a subsidence in the area where Netherlands lag, making it was covered by a sea, leaving only the London-Brabant massif remained as island. After the Frasnian age entered again a regression on, whereby parts of Netherlands came back above water. ===Carboniferous<span class="mw-editsection" len="352" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">There is no other epoch in the geological history of the Earth that was so rich of species and quantities of plants as the Carboniferous period, in an area that spanned the world. All the continents were together in the supercontinent Pangea. From coast to coast was the supercontinent with forests overgrown mangrovesalong the coasts, with huge, intersected by rivers and dry islets. The climate on this continent was similar to that of the current Amazon rainforest -wet, hot and lots of rain.

<p lang="en" len="760" style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Some plant species were: Calamites, Cordaïtes, Lepidodendron, Sigillaria, and many other.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The Carboniferous period in Belgium, Netherlands, United Kingdom and Germany, an area that was expressed around the Equator, is characterized by mangrove vegetation and river deltas. By the high concentration of CO<sub style="line-height:1;">2in the atmosphere there was extensive plant growth possible. In places where not enough circulation of water,peat first arise, which is later converted to coal. Because this coal was buried deeper and deeper and therefore heated, natural gaswas formed. Of the total deposits from the Carboniferous period, however, this is only 5% been veen formation. Large parts of the late Carboniferous basins were mainly filled by deltaïsche deposits.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Gondwana moved in this period over the South Pole, making a ice cap developed here: during part of the Carboniferous there were ice ages that caused sea level fluctuations, similar to the ice ages of the Pleistocene. Netherlands was near the Equator (always ' tropical '), and large climatic fluctuations there were not thereby during the Carboniferous ice ages. ====Lower Carboniferous<span class="mw-editsection" len="359" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] ==== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">During the Early Carboniferous, Carboniferous (Dinantian) age, the increased sea level 100 metres which the southern part of the Old Red Continent, where Netherlands was located, came to be under water. It formed limestone layers. Some of these lime layers are rich in organic material (kerogen, source material for petroleum) and are known as ' coal lime. ====Late Carboniferous<span class="mw-editsection" len="359" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] ==== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">At the beginning of the Late Carboniferous, the Silesian, found a regression place while at the end of this period a transgression occurred. Netherlands was a coastal area, in the immediate vicinity of the Ardennes, where mountain building was once again going to come. The geographical and climatic conditions led to vegetation (coastal swamp) and sedimentation (River delta). There are peat packages interspersed with clay layers are formed, which are now as coal (total ca. 100 m thickness) and shale (many hundreds of meters) have been preserved. The coal was formed through Brown coal from the original peat subsidence and carbonization. This process began during the sedimentation in the Carboniferous period, and continued when packages were buried deeper. The increasing lithostatic pressure and ever increasing temperature, caused by the increasing depth location and weight of overlying rocks and sediments, led to ever further carbonization with coal as an end result. Until 1974 the coal from the Westphalian in Netherlands won in Limburg, where it occurs locally on extractable depth. The inkolen is accompanied by degassing, whereby natural gas forms, which stands under favorable conditions in the upper (younger) rock strata dust build-up. Coal In northern Netherlands is a virtually unreachable depth-but is the byproduct natural gas winbaar locally.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">At the end of the Carboniferous period (Upper) plate tectonics then made sure several continents together formed a supercontinent: Pangea. The ocean that surrounded Pangaea, the Panthalassa-Ocean called. About the central axis of the supercontinent was formed when amalgamating a large mountain belt. The mountains training phase is known as the variscan orogeny. The Ardennes are the remains of one of them. Older rock strata (mainly Devonian and Carboniferous) corrugated, shifted along fractures and were broken by magma pipes of volcanoes. By the volcanic activity and because most lands in one supercontinent was concentrated, the climate changed drastically. Because many country very far from sea, reached moist Ocean air these zones no longer making them verdroogden. Netherlands and Belgium stagnated In the field of the supply of humid Ocean air from the Southeast. The shallow sea North of the Ardennes came more and more under the influence of a more continentally and dryer climate to lie. Coastal marshes (later coal seams) were no longer there.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Far East of Netherlands began to form the Tethys Ocean, which in the Mesozoic era Pangea apart would do drifting in Laurentia and Gondwana super continents. ===Perm<span class="mw-editsection" len="350" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">It existed during the Permian supercontinent Pangea in which nearly all continents against each other were covered with clouds, although Tibet, Iran and Turkey were already working to loosen before China and Siberia clashed against each other. The mountain building caused a decrease in continental crust, so that the oceanic crust rose.This made the larger harbours ability of the oceans, causing a sea level fall occurred. At the end of this period, the sea level on the lowest position ever, aside from thePleistocene USA. In Netherlands is the early Permian, the Rotliegend, known primarily from the Slochteren Formation, which forms an important reservoir rock .

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the early part of the Permian Pangea began to fall apart. This led to riftvorming and extension. During the late Permian Zechstein called, in Western Europe, this led to large-scale basin formation, where the Permian Basin was formed. It formed a large Salt Lake. Because the subsidence faster outlasted the deposition of sediment, came to this area are below sea level, but was not flooded by sea because it was closed by high mountain ranges. When, however, Greenland and Norway started to drift apart, created a connection to the Barents Sea. By the low rainfall and the large evaporation, the salt down. These evaporites were formed in several layers, with the poorly solublelime bottom layer was followed by gypsum - anhydrite -later often turned into rock salt evaporite minerals sylvite (KCl),, carnallite and potassium sulfate. This oftenimpermeabele thick packages work as a final rock, making the oil and gas "caught" are held in reservoirs. In addition, many liming and Dolomites dropped off. The South of the Netherlands belonged to the Mainland of the London-Brabant massif and the Rhine Massif.

<p lang="en" len="286" style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The fractures formed during this period were sometimes so deep that they were in contact with the mantle, with volcanism as a result. ==Mesozoic<span class="mw-editsection" len="356" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Netherlands was for the most part covered by the sea of the Mesozoic . By lifting and subsequent erosion is much of the Mesozoic rock disappeared, leaving many gaps are. ===Trias<span class="mw-editsection" len="351" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">At the beginning of the Trias found the Perm-great place. Geologically changed there is initially not much. Most of Netherlands was below a shallow brackish to salty inland sea. There prevailed just like during the Permian desert like conditions.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the Early Triassic, Buntsandstein, also called called found the Hardegsen phase , the first phase in the Trias caused by rektektoniek. It was marked by upheavals which the Groningen-Borkum High, the Texel-IJsselmeer High and the Clover bank High erodeerden, which soon arose. The intermediate layers were filled up with sediments that are not erodeerden.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">At the beginning of the middle Triassic, Muschelkalk, the increased sea level. As far as the Hercynian mountains was eroded that the inland sea in connection came with theTethys Ocean. In combination with a process of erosion, sedimentation and tectonics Netherlands hit at the end of the Triassic by a shallow sea covered, apart from theLondon-Brabant massif in the Southwest.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the late Triassic found the place early Kimmerische phase, the second phase of rektektoniek during the Triassic. This was caused by the break-up of Pangea. As a result of the salt liquid performed on Zechsteinsalt. ===Jura<span class="mw-editsection" len="350" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">During the Jura Pangea began to fall apart. First of all, formed a three-legged rift between what the continents Africa, South America and North America would be. Byvolcanic activity created a basin that later would become the Atlantic Ocean . Pangea was first split in two former, Laurasia and Gondwana.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">During the transition from Triassic to Jurassic found the Triassic-Jurassic mass extinction place, possibly by high CO<sub style="line-height:1;">2 -levels by volcanism. Small circulation in the shallow sea above Netherlands ensures the mortality of marine life, creating a clay layer oil arose, the Posidonia Shale. During the late Kimmerische phase were formed in the sandy deposits on the Posidonia Formation oil traps by tectonic movements.

<p lang="en" len="361" style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">By lifting during the Middle Jurassic became the northern part of the North Sea region a high that however in the upper Jura by subsidence came to be under water again.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the Netherlands only at Lias Winterswijk in some creeks to the surface. In SouthBelgium come Lias and Dogger to the surface on the East edge of the Paris Basin. ===Chalk<span class="mw-editsection" len="351" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">During the Chalk was a warm climate and entered the break-up of the supercontinent Pangea by that in the Triassic and Jurassic had begun. At the beginning of the Cretaceous layers the continents still reasonably close to each other, but came during the Cretaceous the continents are still further apart. Between Africa and Europe andNorth and South America opened the Atlantic Ocean, the Tethys Oceanbetween Africa and Europe. The old Gondwana broke on Indiain the continents, Africa, Antarcticaand South America.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">There were three tectonic phases in the Chalk; the late Kimmerische phase, the Austric phase and the Subhercynische phase. During this last phase the extensive regimechanged in a compressief regime, whereby falling rocks along the same fracture went to form, which then rise to islands in about 10 million years erodeerden again and disappeared. This process came to an end in the Campanian, after which came to lie under the sea Netherlands again.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Due to the large amounts of new- isostatic light- oceanic crust formed at the rifting apart of the continents, the sea level is relatively high during the Cretaceous period. Were the continental margins thereby under water, so that a relatively large number of shallow seas existed. An example is the Krijtzee that North-Western Europe included.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The Krijtzee existed at the end of the Cretaceous, about from 75 to 65 Ma. In the shallow seas was mainly lime and sand deposited. This layer lime comes in many places in Europe for, for example, there are the cliffs of Dover or the marl of Limburg.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The sediments are known for the large amounts of fossils that are found. For example, In Limburg belemnites, ammonites, crinoids, sea urchins, sea turtles and manyspecies of shells found. Also, some times a Mosasaurus Krijtzee-found in the sediments. Diapsid In England and pterosaurs are found in the Cretaceous period.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In Limburg the total deposed package some 140 m thick, it is here on top of much older rocks from the Carboniferous period. On most sites include the Krijtzee- rock sediments not yet consolidated. The package is from bottom to top divided into:

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">This sequence shows a clear floor of the sea. In the Paleocene, the era that follows on the Chalk, the sea level was, however, pockets so country.
 * AA sand
 * Vaalser green sand
 * Gulpense lime
 * Maastricht lime

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The sandstone deposits of the Cretaceous are the Rhineland Group, the main reservoir rocks of Netherlands. During the subsequent transgression was the chalk of the Cretaceous chalk Group formed, that is mined in the ENCI-quarry at the Sint-Pietersberg. ==Cenozoic<span class="mw-editsection" len="356" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] == ===Tertiary<span class="mw-editsection" len="354" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The beginning of the Tertiary is defined by the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction, where the dinosaurs and ammonites like many other species became extinct. At the tertiaryvertebrate animals were the dominant group and the mammals developed on all continents. The birds also made a bloom period.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">During the Laramische phase in the beginning of the Tertiary Greenland came from Eurasia. ===Temperature of the last 65 Ma<span class="mw-editsection" len="385" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === Temperature of the last 65 Ma. Based on oxygen isotope measurements of benthic foraminifera(Zachos et al., 2001).====Paleocene<span class="mw-editsection" len="355" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] ==== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Apart from South Limburg Netherlands lag during the Paleocene in the sea. In the beginning of this period were still the calcareous rocks of the Maastricht formation deposited. In the late Paleocene there was much tectonic activity during the Laramische phase in which the Central Netherlands High lifted and theNorth Sea basin arose. In this period the Landen formation deposited layer packages, which were deposited in shallow to deep water up to several hundred meters. ====Eocene<span class="mw-editsection" len="352" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] ==== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">During the Eocene hit Australia apart from Antarctica, making this continent thermal insulated hit, so that could form an ice sheet here. The ocean currents were saturated with the cold seawater of the Antarctic, and in turn affected the climate. The temperaturedropped worldwide. This climate change was designed by a global La Niña which led to an extinction of 20% of the plant and animalspecies. This was the largest extinction since the K-T transition, during which 70% of life died out. Climate changes by the rainforests were smaller, allowing the mammals also had to go on the pampa's life.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the Eocene North Sea basin decreased further by rekregime as a result of the further opening of the Atlantic Ocean. The sea level sank In the Middle Eocene. In this period the Dongen formation formed. In the late Eocene found both trans-if regressions place. This involved the formation of Tongeren and the Rupel formation is formed. ====Oligocene<span class="mw-editsection" len="355" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] ==== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">During the Oligocene flora and fauna recovered from the mass extinction at the end of the Eocene. The climate began to resemble that of now. The mammalian group of theCreodonta had already been hit hard during the extinction and now got the growing competition of the Carnivora to endure. In the Oligocene horses developed itself further and created the Lagomorphs. The rhinos have developed some very large species. The very first hominids originated in Africa.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Initially there was a regression, making it South of the Netherlands came above water, High of Artois, but during the Rupelian, the faster drifting away from America for a rekregime making it sank North Sea basin , in which the deposition of the formation of Rupel went through. The High of Artois broke the connection to the Paris Basin. Theupper Rhine Graben came in connection with the Leinedalslenk and with the sea in the North Sea basin. The Roerdalslenk was formed through the Rhine Massif. Around this area there were volcanoes. Because the temperature sank at the end of the Oligocene and the ice caps of Antarctica itself thereby extended, sank the sea level with about 60 metres, making it environment changed and erosion occurred. In Western Netherlands during this period was the Veldhoven formation deposited. ====Miocene<span class="mw-editsection" len="353" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] ==== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">During the Miocene developed the baleen whales and the first Saber-toothed Cats appeared which were relatively successful predators . The sharks had a successful period. The Creodonts died out during this period. The hominids developed further and began to walk upright. In the Miocene and the subsequent periods extended thegrasses Aquarium.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">During the Miocene Epoch, the temperature again. The deposition of the Veldhoven formation in the Aquitanien initially still put through. By the increase in temperature also increased sea level again, although later regression took place. This created a coastal zone in which starting from the Burdigalien the Breda formation was deposed, in Zeeland is present in the form of glauconite sands, in the southeast of Netherlands is developed with this continental deposits of Brown coal and silver sand. The continental deposits are called also called the Ville Formation.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The Baltic River, also called Eridanos, was a huge river that 40 million years ago. The catchment area was partially true is now the Baltic Sea . Twelve million years ago, reached the river the current North Sea and built there with her a huge delta sediments . Around this time, also a precursor of the Rhine. ====Pliocene<span class="mw-editsection" len="354" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] ==== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the Pliocene the nature already seemed similar to that of nowadays; There were already many vertebrate animals that are now still exist- rhinos, Lions, porcupines,leopards, otters, and vultures zebra's. However, there were also other hominids, Saber-toothed Cats, walking owls are hunting and mastodons. In the Pliocene went by the lifting of the Rhine Massif, taking in the coastal area, which at the current Zeeuws-Vlaanderen and West-Brabant lain, the formation of Oosterhout was deposed. The Rhine and the Maas grew by lifting the Slate plateau. At the end of this period, the Rhine by the Aare to take over of the Saône . The Rhine delta took care of deposits that belong to the kiezeloolite Formation . The deposits of the Eridanos are from this period to the formation of Peize reckoned. ===Temperature of Pliocene to recent<span class="mw-editsection" len="387" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === Temperature of the last 5 Ma, by Marius Lisiecki and composed on the basis of 57 deep sea sediment drilling.<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The average global temperature decline which had begun during the Miocene, continued in the Pliocene on. Initially, the decrease of the average temperature during the Pliocene slowly but there were short cool periods. About 2.5 Ma ago, during the Pretiglian age found three very cold periods acting place in quick succession in which in the northern hemisphere land ice caps formed itself. The beginning of the first cold period marks both the beginning of the Quaternary period as of the PleistoceneGlacial Epoch, the ' '. The trend in the temperature decrease is an average that is located between the temperature minima and maxima-such as those caused by the Milanković-parameters. Both amplitude of this periodicity as climatic fluctuations during this time period are subject to change. The periodicity is initially about 41 Ka and the amplitude is relatively limited. From about 1 Mo ago the amplitude is larger and there is every 100 Ka a really great ice age. Also in the last 1 Ma is there of 41 Ka cyclicality ( Fourier Analysis shows, for example, from on the time series from the deep sea drilling). The transition period of the ' especially 41-Ka ' to ' 41-Ka plus 100-Ka ' cyclicality with the larger amplitude is called the ' Middle Pleistocene transition period ' (also called Middle Pleistocene called Revolution: MPR) and lasted from about 1 Ma to 650 Ka. The temperature extremes names with slightly higher temperatures during warm periods (at least on the South Pole it is clear from the EPICA ice core) but especially lower temperatures during the colder (it is clear from all deep sea cores of sufficient depth). Although in the Pleistocene ice sheets periodically before the MPR also already hack in the northern hemisphere have existed, there from the MPR during almost every 41-Ka temperature minimum extensions of land ice in the northern hemisphere, the largest ijsuitbreidingen during the 100-Ka minima. During some of this ' ice ages ' or Scandinavian ice cap USA has reached the Netherlands. ===Quaternary Period<span class="mw-editsection" len="354" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The Quaternary period marks a number of important developments for the current world: the emergence of the genus Homo (man) and the occurrence of repeatedly alternating ice ages (USA) and interglacials (warm times between ice ages). The USA and interglacials were global climate fluctuations. The term glacial/interglacial skips on the climate conditions compared with the current situation at any given location, not on actually covered with ice. The temperature fluctuations between USA and interglacials were less in the tropics than at higher latitudes such as in Netherlands. During two of those ice ages, the Kansan glaciation and Saalian, northern Netherlands was covered with ice. The South has never been covered with ice, but for some time a pool regularly knew climate (Tundra andpolar desert).

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The Dutch surface is for the most part formed in the Quaternary period, and especially in the last part ( Eemian Saalian, periods, Weichselian and Holocene). Only in the extreme South (Limburg) and along the borders with Germany and Belgium however older deposits, which mark the edge of the North Sea basin. In the Quaternary period erosion found In those regions (terrace landscape, deeply cut river valleys), in the rest of Netherlands dominated NET sedimentation, which does not prevent that rivers and land ice anywhere in Netherlands also regularly caused erosion and recasting. The structure of the Quaternary package that the youngest (upper) part of the subsurface of the Netherlands is quite complex, because large rivers on several occasions, others moved, because some parts harder than other parts sank (Hamilton and grabens), because the sea level with the USA-interglacial cycles with it oscillated and because there are occasional land ice over and through the packets going back moved. ====Pleistocene<span class="mw-editsection" len="357" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] ==== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The Pleistocene is characterized by the alternation of periods with a moderate warm climate such as the current time, and periods with a predominantly much colder climate (for USA and called interglacials. During the Eocene and Oligocene ice sheet on Antarctica itself had already formed. During the Pliocene further North America connected to South America (isthmus of Panama) whereby warm Equatorial currents were cut off. This had the result that the Atlantic Ocean cooled. Because North America and Eurasiaon relatively high latitudes around the northern polar seas in the Pleistocene layers could also, on continents in the northern hemisphere ice sheets build up. Nowadays, the Greenland ice cap a case in point, but during the ice ages were areas like Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia, Baltic States, Finland, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Iceland as well as adjacent seas covered by ice caps-well beyond the current polar regions.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Because there are huge amounts of water in the ice caps were recorded, declined during each glacial the sea level worldwide with many tens of meters, rising to about 160 meters during the largest ijsuitbreidingen (for example, the Kansan glaciation and Saalian ice ages). By this huge decline were narrower and the shallow edge seas everywhere came Islands in connection with each other and the Mainland. Seas as the Hudson Bayand Irish Sea , Baltic Sea owe their present form have been covered by thick ice sheets to the several times. Also the origin of the English Channel is to the repeated formation of large ice sheets on Scandinavia and melt water of them attributed.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The relatively rapid alternation of warm and cold periods caused very large changes in flora and fauna which is mainly expressed in the extinction of many plant and animal species. Another effect was a faster evolution, especially among certain groups of mammals, such as the emergence and development of the genus Homo, the Humanoids.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The alternation of USA and interglacials is caused by cyclical changes in the Earth's axis of rotation and rotation course. The relationship between astronomical parameters such as the precession, obliquity andeccentricity and the climate on Earth is named after its discoverer: Madu-cyclicality.

Temperature difference of the last 0.45 Ma, derived from measurements on more than 3 km deep ice cores from the Vostok and the EPICA station.<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Within the Pleistocene glacial periods and more fall ~ 50 interglacials. In many of these periods was a large expansion of glaciers in mountain regions and at higher latitude located lower areas. In ~ 10 USA, the temperature so long and so strong that accumulating ice in the northern hemisphere are stretched far beyond the polar regions on the country, sometimes for tens of thousands of years. These ice sheets were hundreds of meters thick at the edges and in the middle to several kilometres thick. These ice sheets extended over large parts of North America and Eurasia, but not in every ice age on exactly the same spot. Also the period in which the ice sheet itself maintained ranged per glacial. In addition, a glacial ice sheet the size of the transaction-to-transaction within sometimes significantly. In which ijsuitbreiding fell, the largest local ice age changes. In the Netherlands is the ice age at the end of the Saalian (around 150,000 years ago), in England and in East Germany/Poland is a previous ice age (Kansan glaciation, 450,000 years ago or 380,000 years ago — not exactly known), in west Russia it is an even slightly older (presumably 680,000 years ago). The maximum extension of the ice sheet was usually shortly before the end of each glacial, and follows maxima in Madu ' 40-ka obliquity cycle. Ice sheet formation seems to go a little slower than ijskapafsmelting, although individual lobes of the ice cap can go at lightning speed. The expiration of each glacial is characterized by a very rapid increase in temperature making it land ice and sea levels correspondingly rapid increase quickly melted down.

=
Pre-Saalian<span class="mw-editsection" len="357" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] ===== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">At the beginning of the Pleistocene, the Pretiglian age, Netherlands was largely under water. Sea level fluctuated in the Pretiglian age three times with at least 50 meters. It is initial In the Tiglian warmer than in the prior period, extreme cold at the end prevailed.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In southern and Western Netherlands, the Maas and Rhinerivers, from Belgium (present afwaterend via the Scheldt) sediments. The basins of these rivers changed in the course of the Pleistocene of size. Initially extended its catchment area the Mesh into the Vosges, but lost this area later to the Rhine catchment area, i.e. the Moselle rivertributary. Belgian rivers went in the course of the Pleistocene to the West instead of the Dutch subsurface drain. In the Holsteinien was far upstream in the South Germany by the Rhine For Rhine hijacked by the Danube. In Eastern and northern Netherlands put the so-called Eridanosrivier sediments. This was initially a very large river whose watershed to presented in the Baltic States. By repeated glaciation of that part of Eastern Europe, lost the Eridanos going on more and more of the Pleistocene to the Baltic Sea and its catchment area to great Russian Volga and Dnieper rivers as.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Over successive USA and interglacials was, above all by the Eridanos system, much sediment in Netherlands dropped off, which led to the formation of Peize is counted. This ensured that the North Sea coast line shifted gradually to the Northwest (a regression). At the time of the Eburonien they lay far to the North West of the current, offshore in the North Sea. The situation changed somewhat when the expanding ice sheets still further narrowed considerably large Eridanos River system. This allowed during the drastic changes in the patterns of Cromerien Riversedimentation occur. As a result, other rivers such as the Rhine and Maas now more space to sedimentation in Eastern and northern Netherlands respectively and South-Netherlands. Terraces were formed in the South Limburg and adjacent Germany: areas that are subject to tectonic uplift. In the rest of Netherlands, which Tectonically drops, found correct stacking of river deposits place.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The Kansan glaciation is the first glacial period in which the North of Netherlands was covered with land ice (about 450,000 a 350,000 years ago). Both on land and in the vast majority of the North Sea is a range ofgeological phenomena and deposits observed, which can be explained only by the presence of land ice. The most striking glacial phenomena from the Kansan glaciation are deep, often elongated deep erosion gullies either tunnel valleys. These are largely filled with the so-called potklei (formation of Peelo). After the Kansan glaciation broke a warm period to (Holsteinien) and reached the sea level a similar stand with the current situation. At the start of the Saalian started this to fall again. Of coast near the Saalian interglacials of deposits is comparatively few remaining. Erosion by broadening braided rivers during interglacial deposits along basin USA, does that make edges as in Netherlands are not well preserved.

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Saalian<span class="mw-editsection" len="353" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] ===== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">During the Saalian there were three three warm and cold periods. The Rhine flowed through Central, Eastern and northern Netherlands, where the youngest part of theformation of Urk was deposed. During the colder periods was deposed, that cover sand areas to the formation of Boxtel is counted. At the end of the Saalian found the coldest period in which the northern part of the Netherlands was covered with glaciers that had their origin in Scandinavia. Also hit the North Sea basin from Scotland and partly covered with ice from Norway . South of the ice sheet melts much water that gathered over the English Channel to the South afwaterde, and there for so many erosion took care, that in the subsequent Eemian sea for the first time was between England and Netherlands-Belgium-France, instead of a relatively narrow headland. TheMaasand Rhine, which flowed to the North, was forced first above all along the ice edge to the West to flow. The Rhine in the North Sea in Western Netherlands came from meltwater Lake. The current location of the Betuwe and the ice cover and melting down to the River IJssel Valley ice is due.

<p lang="en" len="134" style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In Netherlands are many landscape forms and deposits reflected shaped by tongues of the Fennoscandian herb-rich ice sheet.


 * The deposits exist In Drenthe especially from Boulder clay (formation of Drente) with boulders which are partly about older topography draped are (such as the Hondsrug) and partly tongue in deep carved basins (e.g. River IJssel Valley and Gelderse Vallei).
 * In Central Netherlands formed on either side of glacial tills such tongue basins (by ice opgebulldozerde pre-glacial sedimentation, for example the Veluwe) and rinse sand ranges (so-called Hidayat) made up of transported material with melting water (so-called fluvioglacial deposits- formation of Drente).
 * In the Gelderse Vallei pushed the ice side and forward sediments, where the glacial till of the Utrechtse Heuvelrug and the west flank the glacial till of Wageningen arose. When the ice retreated, remained a deep with meltwater filled more behind that rap full of sedimenteerde. In the same way were also the Veluwe and the Sallandse Heuvelrug and the Lochemse Berg along the River IJssel Valley formed, and also hit the river IJssel Valley during and immediately after the melting of the ice largely filled up. Before the glacial till formed, there were presumably drop formed by Maas and Rhine in the direction of the later tongue basins.Also in adjacent parts of Germany ( Twente 'sRehburger line, to Osnabrück) are strong lateral moraines. After the Saalian glacial tills were some strongly eroded by the Rhine. Fine examples are the realm of Nijmegen, the Montferland and the glacial tills at the German Kleve.
 * In North Netherlands come for local smaller glacial tills. There is especially the Boulder clay itself pushed up, such as Texel, Wieringen, Urk, Gaasterland, Vollenhove. Also the hills at Onstwedde and Sellingen in East Groningen are remnants of glacial till from the Saalian.

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Eemian<span class="mw-editsection" len="352" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] ===== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The Eemian was an interglacial. The average global temperature lay in the Eemian a few degrees above the current temperature. As a result, restored the vegetation and there was less erosion. Also the sea level rose, whereby a part of the Netherlands for the first time since Early-Pleistocene came to be under water. In this coastal area couldveen of the formation of Walter and the formation of Boxtel develop. The latter was deposed and crops out in Netherlands almost entirely still in large parts of Eastern and Southern Netherlands. Other deposits from this period are the marine deposits of the river Eem Formation and deposits of Rhine and Maas (parts of the formation of occupying forces in 1945). The Rhine River IJssel Valley, the Northern ran via the Maas followed more or less the current loop.

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Weichselian<span class="mw-editsection" len="357" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] ===== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The last glacial period was the last clear colder period of the Quaternary period. During the weichselian Belgium and Netherlands were not covered by ice . The southernmost point of the Scandinavian ice sheet lay in Schleswig-Holstein. About Ireland, and Great Britain was also an ice cap, which afving many of the Atlanticprecipitation. Periglacial conditions prevailed In Netherlands and Belgium, there was a continental Tundra climate. In the coldest parts of this period seemed Netherlands even on a polar desert, with very little vegetation. The sea level was approximately 110 meters lower, as a result, lay the bottom of the North Sea largely dry.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Under these circumstances, got wind easy barrel on losliggend sand. In large parts of Europe South of the ice sheet are therefore formed Aeolian deposits: loessand cover sand areas . Loess and cover sand areas and is finer than is particularly in South Limburg and Belgium for. In the weichselian Rhine flowed and are the Netherlands and theMaas by on the current North Sea bottom. This large rivers formed broad plains of braided rivers, their deposits are counted to the formation of occupying forces in 1945 .

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Within the Vistula-glacial there were also colder and warmer periods (stadialen and interstadialen). The last stadialen periods fell between 22,000-18,000 years ago and 12,000-11,000 years ago and are known as the Late Pleniglaciaal and the Younger Dryas. The vegetation zones during interstadialen shifted northwards. These periods usually lasted no longer than a few hundred years, after which the cold weather came back, and the vegetation died. The precipitation regimes and thus also the drainage of rivers showed fluctuations with the stadialen and interstadialen, making the rivers were wider and narrower again and sometimes more of the braided type and sometimes were more of the meandering type. Especially the last two colder periods are many landscape forms and deposits in the contemporary landscape to spot. So are most inclinethat in Netherlands at the surface are formed during the younger Dryas. ====Holocene<span class="mw-editsection" len="354" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] ==== Sea-level rise during the last 25,000 years.Pictured is the sea level rise worldwide: around 6000 years ago, the current state is reached. In Netherlands is the last 9000 years of sea level rise registered, and there is talk of permanently by subsidence relative increase.<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">At the end of the last glacial, the Weichselian, increased temperature, whereby the ice sheets started to melt and there a glacio-eustatic sea-level rise occurred by about 120 metres, mainly caused by the melting of the landijskap in North America, which had more than three times the size of the European, as well as from ice sheets on Greenland and Antarctica. This rise in sea level caused a strong transgression that still express by glacio-isostatic subsidence was. Because of the weight of the ice cap was thelithosphere of Scandinavia pushed down and this came with the melting of the ice up again. Because the hinge point in Belgium and Netherlands, Denmark was made for this in postglaciale subsidence. This subsidence was greatest in North-Netherlands and the northern part of the Dutch continental shelf. The Southwest Dutch and Belgian coastal zone dropped the least. Aforementioned decrease in soil in the North Sea was further enhanced by the weight of the rising sea water (hydro-isostatic subsidence).

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Aside from what was the climate fluctuations as nowadays. The sea level was about in the beginning of the Holocene, about 11,500 years ago, still so low that a large part of the North Sea basin dry lay, with the northern coastline of the dogger bank and current England was still connected with the Mainland. Although the temperature in theHolocene barely rose, put the sea-level rise anyway.

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Preboreal and Boreal<span class="mw-editsection" len="367" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] ===== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">During the Preboreal, the beginning of the Holocene, the sea level was approximately 50 feet below NAP. Netherlands was almost entirely covered with Pleistocene deposits. The high parts were formed by the Saalian glacial tills . In addition there were River deposits of the formation of occupying forces in 1945 in the area of the Rhine and the Meuse and dekzanden and loess of the formation of Boxtel. The rivers changed by increased vegetation, a more even flow rate and less and less sediment ofmeanderingto braided diepinsnijdend. The main valleys were the Scheldedal, the Rhine-Meuse Valley, the Valley of the Overijsselse Vecht, the Boornedal and the Hunzedal.At the last two arose early on a tidal inlet. The peat formation limited until stream valleys in the Low package of Singraven.

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Atlanticum<span class="mw-editsection" len="356" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] ===== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the Early-Atlanticum, roughly 9,000 years ago, the sea level was approximately 20 meters below sealevel, whereby the coastline near came from the current coastline.The sea could penetrate far into the deeply incised river valleys, in the West of the Netherlands at the end of Atlanticum to schokland. The glacial tills of the Texel-IJsselmeer High and the Groningen High stakes as headlands. Erosion caused sediment of these headlands and that of Flanders lower areas filled up. In this period formed to the Dutch coast-which is characterized by the many tidal inlets- Beach walls, behind which a wadden sea area came into existence, further inland becoming salt marshes. By the sea-level rise entered a groundwater rise up, making further inland peat was formed, the Basic peat Layer.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Sea-level rise also ensured that the rivers changed from meandering to anastomoserend. It also fostered a reduction of the gradient, which rivers burst their banks started to occur and avulsions . The Rhine came to lie further north via the Oude Rijn. On the upper Pleistocene sandy soils to form peat moor began. At the end of the relative sea level rise further took the Atlanticum, whereby the opslibbing went faster than the rise and slow a verlanding of the tidal basins occurred.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Although there already from the Middle Paleolithic traces of habitation have been found in Netherlands, remained the human impact on the landscape is limited. This changed with the introduction of the agriculture in the early Mesolithic. For the animal husbandry was forest cut down, whereby Moors were created. Almost all of the forest disappeared by grazing on the upper sand soils.

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Subboreaal<span class="mw-editsection" len="356" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] ===== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">While the shallow North Sea bottom Subboreaal made sure that sand was increasingly transported to the coast. This caused with the supply of the Pleistocene sand at Texel and, to a lesser extent, the supply of the rivers that shore could expand. The west coast closed itself ever more, with the result that the underlying verzoettelagoon, which large-scale peat formation in the hand worked. At the end of this period, also joined the tidal inlet of Mountains and were the only openings the estuaries of the Scheldt (via the Eastern Scheldt), the Meuse (near Rotterdam), the Rhine (at Leiden) and the primal IJ (at Castricum).

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">To the North was the Pleistocene sand at Texel at the end of the Subboreaal virtually disappeared, apart from a small part at Texel and Wieringen. It was replaced by a bog. The northern coast is not closed, probably because the shoreline at Texel the sand supply blocked, the subsidence was stronger than those in Central and South-Western Netherlands and less sediment was argued than in the Rhine-Meuse-area.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In a fresh water Lake IJsselmeer area continued to exist because the supply of sediment was not enough. Entered in a number of places called peat formation, but this could not happen in places where the Lake was too deep. This more waterde through the Oer-IJ at Castricum.

<p lang="en" len="75" style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">At the end of this period were the rivers meandering or right again. ===Palaeogeography during the Subboreaal<span class="mw-editsection" len="383" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] ===
 * <p lang="en" len="26" style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:inherit;">Netherlands around 5500 BC.
 * <p lang="en" len="26" style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:inherit;">Netherlands around 3850 BC

<p style="margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;line-height:inherit;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:13px;"><span len="2" style="border-style:none;color:rgb(255,241,93);">█ █  Beach and dunes
 * <p lang="en" len="26" style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:inherit;">Netherlands around 2750 BC.

<p style="margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;line-height:inherit;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:13px;"><span len="2" style="border-style:none;color:rgb(210,213,0);">█ █  Tidal area (sand wadden, swallowing and salt marshes)

<p style="margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;line-height:inherit;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:13px;"><span len="2" style="border-style:none;color:rgb(181,108,3);">█ █  Became accessible large bogs and rivers (including electric-shock belts, verlande/crevassen)

<p style="margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;line-height:inherit;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:13px;"><span len="2" style="border-style:none;color:rgb(161,170,149);">█ █  Valley of the large rivers (not overveend)

<p style="margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;line-height:inherit;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:13px;"><span len="2" style="border-style:none;color:rgb(254,201,1);">█ █  River dunes (delo)

<p style="margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;line-height:inherit;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:13px;"><span len="2" style="border-style:none;color:rgb(227,244,252);">█ █  Open water (Sea, lagoons, rivers)

<p style="margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;line-height:inherit;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:13px;"><span len="2" style="border-style:none;color:rgb(241,246,226);">█ █  Pleistocene landscape (>-6 m compared to NAP)

<p style="margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;line-height:inherit;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:13px;"><span len="2" style="border-style:none;color:rgb(255,253,238);">█ █  Pleistocene landscape (-6 m-0 m)

<p style="margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;line-height:inherit;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:13px;"><span len="2" style="border-style:none;color:rgb(255,249,194);">█ █  Pleistocene landscape (0 m-10 m)

<p style="margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;line-height:inherit;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:13px;"><span len="2" style="border-style:none;color:rgb(255,235,166);">█ █  Pleistocene landscape (10 m-20 m)

<p style="margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;line-height:inherit;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:13px;"><span len="2" style="border-style:none;color:rgb(254,201,1);">█ █  Pleistocene landscape (20 m-50 m)

<p style="margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;line-height:inherit;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:13px;"><span len="2" style="border-style:none;color:rgb(231,163,0);">█ █  Pleistocene landscape (50 m-100 m)

<p style="margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;line-height:inherit;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:13px;"><span len="2" style="border-style:none;color:rgb(218,96,13);">█ █  Pleistocene landscape (100 m-200 m)

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Subatlanticum<span class="mw-editsection" len="359" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ Edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" len="1" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] ===== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In the Subatlanticum began the demolition of the coast. Virtually no further rise of the sea level in combination with higher storm frequency is one of the possible causes. The mouths of the Rhine, the Meuse and the Scheldt were wider, making the sea could penetrate further. The bog got dehydrated, causing subsidence occurred. This was most evident in Zeeland, where the bogs also were dewatered for agriculture. The peat formation came here by flushing of the sea just before the beginning of the Christian era to an end, after which strong erosion occurred. Selnering here was another important reason of degradation of the peat area. Thecoastal barrier was in the Late Middle Ages almost entirely gone. Subsidence also occurs by natural gas- and groundwater extraction and local through salt- and coal mining. Thanks to the good sewer system is included, there is less water in the soil along the coast leads to salinisation of the soil from the North Sea and in the rest of the country this strengthens the subsidence.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">During the iron age, around [http://www.microsofttranslator.com/bv.aspx?from=nl&to=en&a=http%3A%2F%2Fnl.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2F500_v.Chr. 500 BC], was in the coastal region of Friesland-Groningen started the construction of mounds. Around 1000 the diking started by the rivers and coastal area against floods. Initially, this especially peatlands, starting from the 13th century were mainly omdijkt salt marshes .

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">To the Dutch coast was made from the beginning of the 11th century until the 16th century the formation of the Young Dunes place. This sand was submitted by coastal erosion. Behind the dunes were formed by lakes that were larger exit. From the 16th century, as a result of the Peat for peat still pee in. Between the 11th and 13th century took place in the Dutch-Utrecht great plain the Large Mining place, at which large peat bogs were mined. This area was probably around 1150 omdijkt at all. With the introduction of the dredging bracket in the 16th century, and what could the mud mill, later the peat below the surface to be weggebaggerd on the clay layer, a practice that was called battle tally marks . A negative result of the battle tally marks-especially when that happened on a large scale-was that this could arise because the huge puddles were tongues of landat storms sometimes washed away, making several small puddles turned to a big puddle could unite. That way United the Haarlemmermeer in the 16th century with the former Leidsemeer, making a Lake of impending size existed, until in the 19th century finally decided this was dry. In Northwest Utrecht created the Loosdrecht Lakes and peat extraction by the Lakes ' Vinkeveense plassen ' . Many ontveende areas in Western Netherlands were laid after the 17th century, this gave rise to the weather dry peat polders.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">At the beginning of Subatlanticum the Flevomeer already existed. In this period created a Northern connection with sea, making the Oer-IJ at Castricum slowly silted. After the Roman period made exit the extended toAlmere. In the early Middle Ages extended the connection between Almere and the Wadden Sea to the Vlie. In the 9th and 10th century by burglaries the Middelzee, who then again became and thus was fully drained in the 16th century. Dike of salt marsh and coastal veengebieden made sure during storms sea water outflows could no more over the salt marshes. This increased the storm surge height, thus reducing the chance of rose on dike breaches. This therefore frequently found place.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Among other things by the storm surges of the 13th century and because with the All Saints ' flood of 1170 the marsdiep Texel by North Holland separated, entered a larger erosion on whereby the connection became larger and the Zuiderzee was formed. By building the Afsluitdijk was created in 1932 the IJsselmeer. The plan for the Delta works was after the North Sea flood of 1953 express performed with the completion of theMaeslantkering 1997.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">But also along the rivers are regularly broken, especially by channelling dikes in Netherlands, but also in Belgium and Germany. By the construction of dikes are river beds contained reducing the amount of sludge in an ever-smaller area gets knocked down, making the water meadows ever higher and the water levels rise. Again takes on the height difference between the inner and outer dike area caused by the slowly vegetated area.Extreme rainfall in the upstream areas or many melt water from the Alps can then lead to flooding. As a result of the high water in 1993 and 1995 was drawn up the Delta plan large rivers after which the river dykes were improved.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The problem here is however unhelpful. One of the solutions is to set up emergency overflow areas, another is agree with Germany and Belgium. Also here are the rivers channeled.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.3999996185303px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The result of all these processes is the current geology of Netherlands.