18th century

The 18th century (by the Julian calendar) is the 18th period of 100 years, so consisting of the years 1701 to 1800. The 18th century belongs to the2nd millennium. In the political field, there have been huge shifts occurred, especially in the last decade. After the French Revolution of 1789 France has emerged as the most aggressive power: led by Napoleon Bonaparte, the war against Russia, Austria, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Naples and theOttoman Empire. This strong expansion drift occurs at the end of a century that a loss of French power on the continent and in the colonies has given to see. The United Kingdom has developed into the strongest power in Europe, although this position is challenged now by France. Especially the size of the British colonial empire has increased (For Indies, Canada), despite the loss of the now independent United States. Evenalshet United KingdomAustria is one of the most prominent and dogged opponents of the revolutionary France; the country has played an important role over the past century in the battle for the European hegemony. The other major German land, Prussia, holds itself aloof from the European troubles. The country has by its strong internal structure over the past hundred years can working up to one of the most powerful powers. The Colossus in the East, Russia, has its limits further West and now plays for the first time in its history actually actually a role of meaning in European politics. These five countries-France, theUnited Kingdom, Austria, Prussia and Russia – determine largely the political face of Europe in the eighteenth century.

There are big losers in this century. In the 17th century Spain, still in the possession of a powerful army and of vast areas on the continent, is now a stunted country in a remote corner of Europe. Poland, at the beginning of the century is still a State of huge size, it is at the end of it (after 1795) disappeared and split up between Russia, Prussia and Austria. The hegemony of Sweden in the North since the disastrous wars of Charles XII completely nullified. The proud independence of the Republic of the seven Provinces has been lost: Netherlands is now under the Batavian Republicname a vassal state of France. The southern Netherlands are, after nearly a century Austrian rule, under French rule. In South-East Europe, the Ottoman Empire further losses have to accept; It hardly plays more of a role in the continental politics

In this century is going to develop a global economy with Europe as the Centre; This continent, especially the Northwest, is richer than any other part of the world as well. The numerous inventions and the developed technique, which their effect on Agriculture and industry not fog, poses many Europeans a greater grasp on to influence conditions in the past. At the end of the eighteenth century France Europe more than 180 million inhabitants, 70 million more than at the beginning. Most people live and work in the countryside, yet only London (900,000 inhabitants) and Paris (600,000 inhabitants) one can mention large cities; only 50 cities have more than 50,000 inhabitants. ==Important events and developments[ Edit] == 
 * Europe
 * The Royal absolutism WINS everywhere site. The regional nobility will lose its dominant position in Exchange for a place in the Central Administration and in the daily entourage of the forest (Adelscompromis).
 * There is also a variant: the enlightened despot. This wants to father or mother of the people. He/she promotes arts and Sciences, and is committed to reliable legislation, case law and governance. Examples are:Frederick the great of Prussia and Catherine the great of Russia, Joseph II of the Holy Roman Empire.
 * The Ottoman Empire loses in Europe to power. Most administrative functions are exercised by Greeks.
 * Also the Russian-Turkish wars at the time of the Ottoman Empire Catherine the great push back slowly. The Russians draw their superiority in the Black Sea and on land up to the Danube. The Imperial Russian Navy operates even in the Mediterranean Sea.
 * The Janissaries, once the most feared Turkish army part, have become a hodgepodge of opportunists, which consist only of his on own gain. They picking more and more rights of the sultan los (the right to marry, financial rights, admission of born Muslims). The janissaries are hereditary dynastietjes that as a kind of minor nobility in Europe. They squeezing the local Christian farmers out mercilessly.
 * The Habsburg empire becomes the dominant power in South-Eastern Europe. The military frontier, Militärgrenze along the Croatian in the 16th century, the conquest of Turkish territory expanded to include the Slawonische Militärgrenze (1702), the Banater Militärgrenze (1742) and the Siebenbürger Militärgrenze (1764). In this belt is mostly Slavic professional soldiers who have to defend Europe against the Turks.
 * In the beginning of the Hannoveriaanse period in the United Kingdom are the Whigs the main political party in the Government. During this period, the Tories nearly extinct as political power. During the reign ofGeorge III changes this, he frees itself of the "Whig magnates" and creates a new Tory party . They consisted mostly of former moderate Whigs.

Bankruptcy of the WIC*The Dutch West India Company (WIC) stretches difficult its existence. They're going to end up bankrupt in 1791. The more successful United East India Company retains the monopoly on the eastern trade to the Batavian revolution. Chinoiseries in rococo style*The Lighting makes for a revival of Arts and Sciences in Europe and America. ==Important persons of the 18th century[ Edit] == Enlightened thinker Voltaire*Johann Sebastian Bach
 * Economy
 * In England begins around 1750 the agricultural revolution: the system of urgency, shall be replaced by the four battle system, making the bottleneck of the urgency, at system, namely the fallow land, will be disabled. Turnips, clover, root crops and grasses and cereals go alternating de braak replaced.
 * Also in England starting the industrial revolution with the invention of the steam engine by Thomas Newcomen. He builds one hundred to the coal mines keep dry. James Watt improves the operation considerably.
 * The textile industry is mechanized by the spinning and weaving chairs.
 * Lead sheet industry to lose its Verviers.
 * The Governments are in their trade and industrial policy guided by the mercantilism. They promote the export, import and make gold stocks to the brakes.
 * The first factories born in Russia. The Russian statesmen decide to put their serfs in the development of the industry on a large scale way easier to be able to do gradients using this cheap and constant form of labour. Especially in the Ural mountains, the Olonets governorate and in Siberia registered farmers are widely deployed.
 * America
 * Century of the slave trade, especially from West Africa to America. The slaves are met to work on the sugar plantation in the Caribbean and on the cotton plantation in the South of North America. This is required because during and after the conquest of America the native Indians have been largely massacred or extinct by infectious diseases, and the remaining ones are too heavily weakened for the hard work on the plantations.
 * If the viceroyalties New Granada and Rio de la Plata are formed at the expense of territory of the Viceroyalty of Peru, Lima to lose interest and are Caracas and Buenos Aires major trading cities.
 * The American war of independence breaks out when the English settlers in America claim more influence on their own Board. This results in the drafting of the Declaration of Independence
 * Diamond is found In Brazil. Holland Gets the monopoly on the import and processing of Brazilian diamond.
 * Republic of the United Netherlands
 * The Republic of the seven United Netherlands fails to come to a better decision making. The Brussels regional Confederationparalyzes the sovereignty, which is not little contributes to its demise in 1795.
 * Repeated contentions between orangists "deal" and lead to the conclusion of contracts of harmony, where the public-sector employment be divided between the two parties. This system eventually degenerates innepotism: the offices are distributed within the same families.
 * In the midst of the regions that the Dutch Republic Provincien forms, maintain a number of exclavessuch as the glory Culemborg, the barony of IJsselstein, the city of Ravenstein and the Lordship of Vianen.
 * Upper guelders, the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) divided into Prussian, State upper guelders, for Jülich and guelders upper guelders and Austrian upper guelders. This lasts until the French occupation in 1795.
 * Southern Netherlands
 * The Habsburg Netherlands in the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) about Spanish in Austrian control. In the Austrian Netherlands is the Minister Plenipotentiary the highest representative of the Austrian Emperor after theGovernor. The Minister Plenipotentiary is the actual head of the Government in the southern Netherlands. The function of Governor is purely honorary, and is granted to members of the ruling House of Habsburg-Lorraine.
 * After 1713 makes Austrian rule a more open Jewish community. During this time there will be a large immigration of Ashkenazi Jews to the country. Emperor Joseph II gives Jews the right to trade, crafts to exercise and to own land. Finally, they also get the right to own cemeteries.
 * Beginning of the francization of Brussels. Administration and high bourgeoisie exclusively use of the French language.
 * From the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 until the French annexation in 1795 there is a province of West-Flanders, which is much further south than current and also now French-speaking areas.
 * Tensions arise In the 1980s by the rash innovativeness of Emperor Joseph II. But the Brabant revolution hangs in the Prussian intervention. Eventually, the Belgians "liberated" by the French revolutionary army.
 * Military
 * Rise of the light infantry. In Prussia and Hesse hunters regiments that arise with hunting guns are armed. These Sharpshooters are popular and the example for many Freikorps.
 * Colonies
 * The African slaves in Suriname who have managed to escape, with the help of the native population own villages found in the Amazon. From these settlements they guerrilla attacks on the plantations. This happens with so much success that the colonial Government in 1760 the first of a series of peace treaties closes with the Maroon tribes. That actually makes the Maroons until the first freed slaves on the American continent.
 * In the Dutch Cape Colony is successfully developed viticulture, for example on Stellenbos and on Constantia.
 * The Mughal Empire falls apart while the British influence in the Princely States increases.
 * Power Supply
 * In the second half of the century is going massively over Netherlands on potatoes as a staple food.
 * England goes to the tea.
 * Tobacco is used In widely. Smoked Gouda pipe or in the snorted in the snuff box.
 * The British naval doctor James Lind is the first that relates the symptoms of scurvy and eating citrus fruits. From now on, to prevent the disease used lemon juice, which the English Marines the nickname ' Limeys ' presents. To preserve the sauerkraut also goes well from now on board.
 * Religion
 * The Polish Rabbi Yisroel ben Eliezer founds Hasidic Judaismmovement. He and his supporters emphasize strict adherence to dietary laws, the dress code and other religious precepts.
 * The Roman Catholic Church has again to do with a secretion: the old Catholoc found an own church society.
 * Movements within Protestantism arise pietistic, focusing on the inner beliefs. The German Moravian Church settles also in Zeist and as missionary society in Suriname. The English Methodist shoot root in the American colonies.
 * Mohammed ibn Abdul-Wahhab founds the Salafism, a reform movement into islam.
 * City and country
 * Between the larger cities creates a system of post roads. By stagecoaches and by postmen on horseback (the had been ridden) is transported to places where the public post his letters can come pick it up.
 * Three times a year-long wave of cattle plague through Europe. The disease is described in 1711 by the personal physician of the Pope Giovanni Lancisi that recommends, in order to kill all the cattle disease occur by strangulation, in order to prevent blood infection. While the Englishman Dodson and the Dutchman Kemper are working on a vaccine, is experimenting the Groninger boer Geert Reinders this in practice.The disease not only causes the downfall of many farms, but also high food prices in the cities.
 * Capability Brown is the main designer of the English landscape style.
 * On outdoor places does one decorate Orangerie, glass greenhouses where in winter the (sub) tropical plants in tubs only.
 * Wealthy citizens are distinguished by the setting up of rarities cabinets.
 * Fashion
 * To the prevailing fashion is called the wigs time this century. The extension tube wig shrinks and gets a more civilised impression. Later, the wig tied together with a bow from behind (tail wig).
 * Typical of this eighteenth-century period are the Tower tall Womens hairstyles, which are true works of art of human hair combined with horsehair and a construction of metal or pillows. The whole is decorated with pearls, jewels, feathers and pieces of fabric.
 * Women's fashion is characterized by slender bodies with a deep décolleté and a crinoline (crinoline). Characteristic is also the large production side, that is a "Europa" par excellence.
 * Wear long trousers, where workmen wear practical noblemen and patricians until the last quarter of the 18th century stockings, garters and knee trousers. Long trousers or "trousers" may not be worn at the French court. This one makes no exception for officers and soldiers. The underlying reason of this hofprotocol is the protection of the silk industry of Lyon that the stockings manufacture.
 * Art
 * Rococo as continuation of Baroque in the art. airy asymmetrical forms are filled in with pastel colors.
 * In the middle of the 18th century chinoiserie is at its peak. A chinoiserie is an art object or building in the Chinese style. There is a lot of porcelain and wallpaper produced with Chinese motifs such as pagodas, parasols, exotic birds. Also the Japanese Imari porcelain is with lots of flower decorations a popular import product.
 * In the 18th century draw many stuck at work (also referred to as ' plafonneurs ' or ' master stickers called ') from Tecino and Northern Italy to the northern countries of Europe in order to meet the increasing demand for ornamental stucwerkers.
 * The Sturm und Drang is the counterpart of the rationalism. She is characterized by the passion for nature and man. The French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseauspeaks of "Retour à la Nature" (back to nature), the basal drift. This is the guiding principle and the main motivator of man and not the mind.
 * In Europe the first fairy tales books: a translation of the tales of one thousand and one nights and the fairy tales of Mother Goose.
 * Thesogolonmovement the ' Writings ' appear In Europe with reflections on art, religion, politics and fashion. The Hollandsche Spectator is introduced in 1731 by Justus of Plain. Appear in Ghent from 1779 the Thesogolonmovement Writings in the southern Netherlands.
 * Bloom of the epistolary novel with the well-known examples: Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse (1758), Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Leading des jungen Werthers (1774), Choderlos de Laclos, Les liaisons dangereuses (1782), Aagje Dekenand Betje Wolff , The Historie van mejuffrouw Sara burgerhart (1782).
 * Rise of the opera comique and the Opera buffa.
 * At the French court is a popular dance the gavotte .
 * Sciences
 * Transition from a historical descriptive science to an inquiring experimental science.
 * Classification of the plant Kingdom by botanists such as Carl Linnaeus and William Withering.
 * Herman Boerhaave Jan Swammerdam studies gives out.
 * Chemists as Antoine Lavoisier, Joseph Priestley and Henry Cavendish discover the oxygen, hydrogen and other elements of air.
 * The huge increase in printed books, magazines and pamphlets and the thirst for knowledge among the public ask for organization of information. In England appears A Dictionary of the English Language, and in France the encyclopedia raisoné dictionaire des sciences, des arts et des Métiers by Diderot and d'Alembert, and Buffon 's Histoire Naturelle.
 * Isaac Newton introduces the experimental physics, in Willem Jacob's Gravesande Netherlands practiced by.
 * The French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange introduces in 1782 the Lagrange formalism. The Lagrangian is the difference between kinetic and potential energy of the system. The integral of the Lagrangian over time gives the action of a system.
 * For the Positioning on Earth and the Navigation on sea are the ground-breaking insights and inventions of John Harrison .
 * Adam Smith develops his teaching of the classical economics. He states that the collective interest of society is best served if all individuals pursuing their own interests as much as possible. In the market mechanism where profit is the driving force for economic activity, will then the best alignment of supply and demand.
 * Lighting ideas deeply penetrate into Scotland. There starts getting more attention for other faculties than those of Theology and philosophy. In particular, medications and rights are very popular. Especially theUniversity of Edinburgh is proving to be a home to all kinds of novelties. Doctors are even a Scottish export product (among other things to the Russian court).
 * Johan Bernoulli
 * Catherine the great
 * Denis Diderot
 * Leonhard Euler
 * Frederick II (the great) of Prussia
 * George II of Great Britain
 * George III of the United Kingdom
 * Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
 * Georg Friedrich Händel
 * Joseph Haydn
 * David Hume
 * Immanuel Kant
 * Joseph-Louis Lagrange
 * Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
 * Louis XIV of France
 * Louis XV of France
 * Thomas Jefferson
 * Maria Theresia
 * Montesquieu
 * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
 * Peter I of Russia
 * Robespierre
 * Jean-Jacques Rousseau
 * Adam Smith
 * George Washington, the first president of the United States of America
 * Voltaire
 * Christian Wolff