Rhapsody in Blue

Rhapsody in Blue is a 1924 musical composition by American composer George Gershwin for solo piano and jazz band, which combines elements of classical music with jazz-influenced effects.

Commissioned by bandleader Paul Whiteman, the composition was orchestrated by Ferde Grofé several times, including the original 1924 scoring, "theater orchestra" setting published in 1926, and the symphony orchestra scoring published in 1942, though completed earlier. The piece received its premiere in the concert, An Experiment in Modern Music, which was held on February 12, 1924, in Aeolian Hall, New York, by Whiteman and his band with Gershwin playing the piano.

The editors of the Cambridge Music Handbooks opined that "The Rhapsody in Blue (1924) established Gershwin's reputation as a serious composer and has since become one of the most popular of all American concert works."[1]

Contents
[hide]
 * 1 History
 * 1.1 Commission
 * 1.2 Composition
 * 1.3 Premiere
 * 1.4 Responses
 * 2 Orchestration
 * 3 Recordings
 * 4 Analysis
 * 5 In popular culture
 * 6 Preservation status
 * 7 References
 * 7.1 Footnotes
 * 8 External links

Commission[edit]
After the success of an experimental classical-jazz concert held with French-Canadian singer Eva Gauthier at Aeolian Hall (New York) on 1 November 1923, band leader Paul Whiteman decided to attempt something more ambitious.[2] He asked Gershwin to contribute a concerto-like piece for an all-jazz concert he would give in Aeolian Hall in February 1924. Whiteman became interested in featuring such an extended composition by Gershwin in the concert after he had collaborated with Gershwin in the Scandals of 1922, impressed by the original performance of the one-act opera Blue Monday, which was nevertheless a commercial failure. Gershwin declined on the grounds that, as there would certainly be need for revisions to the score, he would not have enough time to compose the new piece.[3]

Late on the evening of January 3, at the Ambassador Billiard Parlor at Broadway and 52nd Street in Manhattan, while George Gershwin and Buddy De Sylva were playing billiards, his brother Ira Gershwin was reading the January 4 edition of the New York Tribune.[3][4] An article entitled "What Is American Music?" about the Whiteman concert caught his attention, in which the final paragraph claimed that "George Gershwin is at work on a jazz concerto, Irving Berlin is writing a syncopated tone poem, and Victor Herbert is working on an American suite."

In a phone call to Whiteman next morning, Gershwin was told that Whiteman's rival Vincent Lopez was planning to steal the idea of his experimental concert and there was no time to lose.[5] Gershwin was finally persuaded to compose the piece.

Composition[edit]
Since there were only five weeks left, Gershwin hastily set about composing a piece, and on the train journey to Boston, the ideas of Rhapsody in Blue came to his mind. He told his first biographer Isaac Goldberg in 1931:

Gershwin began his work on January 7 as dated on the original manuscript for two pianos.[2] The piece was titled "American Rhapsody" during composition. The title Rhapsody in Blue was suggested by Ira Gershwin after his visit to a gallery exhibition of James McNeill Whistler paintings, which bear titles such as Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket and Arrangement in Grey and Black (better known as Whistler's Mother).[8] After a few weeks, Gershwin finished his composition and passed the score to Whiteman's arranger Ferde Grofé, who orchestrated the piece, finishing it on February 4, only eight days before the premiere.[9]

Premiere[edit]
Rhapsody in Blue premiered in an afternoon concert on February 12, 1924, held by Paul Whiteman and his band Palais Royal Orchestra, entitled An Experiment in Modern Music, which took place in Aeolian Hall inNew York City.[10] Many important and influential composers of the time such as John Philip Sousa and Sergei Rachmaninoff were present. The event has since become historic specifically because of its premiere of the Rhapsody.

The purpose of the experiment, as told by Whiteman in a pre-concert lecture in front of many classical music critics and highbrows, was "to be purely educational". It would "at least provide a stepping stone which will make it very simple for the masses to understand, and therefore, enjoy symphony and opera". The program was long, including 26 separate musical movements, divided into 2 parts and 11 sections, bearing titles such as "True form of jazz" and "Contrast: legitimate scoring vs. jazzing". Gershwin's latest composition was the second to last piece (before Elgar's Pomp and Circumstance March No. 1).[11] Many of the numbers sounded similar and the ventilation system in the concert hall was broken. People in the audience were losing their patience, until the clarinet glissando that opened Rhapsody in Blue was heard.[12]

The Rhapsody was performed by Whiteman's band, with an added section of string players, and George Gershwin on piano. Gershwin decided to keep his options open as to when Whiteman would bring in the orchestra and he did not write down one of the pages for solo piano, with only the words "Wait for nod" scrawled by Grofé on the band score. Gershwin improvised some of what he was playing, and he did not write out the piano part until after the performance, so it is unknown exactly how the original Rhapsody sounded.

The opening clarinet glissando came into being during rehearsal when; "... as a joke on Gershwin, [Ross] Gorman (Whiteman's virtuoso clarinettist) played the opening measure with a noticeable glissando, adding what he considered a humorous touch to the passage. Reacting favourably to Gorman's whimsy, Gershwin asked him to perform the opening measure that way at the concert and to add as much of a 'wail' as possible."[13]

Responses[edit]
By the end of 1927, Whiteman's band had played the Rhapsody eighty-four times, and its recording sold a million copies.[14] To get the whole piece onto two sides of a 12" record it had to be played at a faster speed than it would usually have in concert, which gave it a hurried feel and some rubato was lost. Whiteman later adopted the piece as his band's theme song, and opened his radio programs with the slogan "Everything new but the Rhapsody in Blue."

The piece received mixed reviews from mainstream critics. Olin Downes, reviewing the concert in The New York Times:

Another reviewer, Lawrence Gilman, a Richard Wagner specialist who later wrote a devastating review of Gershwin's Porgy and Bess, commenting on the Rhapsody in the New York Tribune on February 13, 1924, said:

Some critics described the piece as formless, and claimed that Gershwin only glued his melodic segments together into one piece. Pitts Sanborn wrote that the music "runs off into empty passage-work and meaningless repetition".[16] In an article in Atlantic Monthly in 1955, Leonard Bernstein, who nevertheless admitted that he loved the piece, wrote:

Orchestration[edit]
Gershwin had agreed that Ferde Grofé, Whiteman's pianist and chief arranger, was the key figure in enabling the piece to be successful, and critics have praised the orchestral color. Grofé confirmed in 1938 that Gershwin did not have sufficient knowledge of orchestration in 1924.[17] After the premiere, Grofé took the score and made new orchestrations in 1926 and 1942, each time for larger orchestras.[18] Up until 1976, when Michael Tilson Thomas recorded the original jazz band version for the very first time, the 1942 version was the arrangement usually performed and recorded.

The 1924 orchestration was tailored for Whiteman's band of 23 musicians:[19]

Reed I (Ross Gorman)—clarinet, bass clarinet, oboe, E flat soprano (sopranino) saxophone, alto saxophone; Reed II (Don Clark)—soprano, alto, and baritone saxophones; Reed III (Hale Byers)—soprano and tenor saxophones. (Gorman, Clark and Byers played other woodwinds for Whiteman, but these are the instruments used in the 1924 scoring.) 2 B flat trumpets (Henry Busse and Frank Siegrist); 2 Horns in F (Arturo Cerino and Al Corrado); 2 Trombones (Roy Maxon and James Casseday), and Tuba (in the 1924 the score it alternates with String Bass; Whiteman's personnel included Gus Helleberg and Albert Armer); Percussion (one player playing traps, timpani and bells; George Marsh for the premiere); Orchestral piano (Whiteman's roster included pianists Ferde Grofé and Henry Lange); Tenor Banjo (Michael Pingatore); Violins (8 for the 1924 premiere).

Grofé's familiarity with the Whiteman band's strengths is a key factor in the scoring. This original version, with its unique instrumental requirements, had lain dormant until its revival in reconstructions beginning in the mid-1980s, owing to the popularity and serviceability of the later scorings, described below.

The orchestration published in 1926, rarely heard today,[citation needed] is an adaptation of the original for a "pit" orchestra, which includes a single flute, oboe and bassoon, two horns, two trumpets and one trombone, as well as the same percussion and strings complement as the later 1942 version.[20]

The orchestration published in 1942 for full symphony orchestra is scored for solo piano and the following orchestra:[21] It was completed some years earlier, as it was conducted by Grofé at the 1937 Gershwin Memorial Concert in New York (Harry Kaufman, piano), and must have been the scoring used by Gershwin when soloing with symphony orchestras in the 1930s.[citation needed]
 * woodwinds: 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets in B-flat and A, bass clarinet, 2 bassoons, 2 alto saxophones in E-flat, tenor saxophone in B-flat;
 * brass: 3 French horns in F, 3 trumpets in B-flat, 3 trombones, tuba;
 * percussion: timpani, crash cymbal, snare drum, bass drum, gong, triangle, Glockenspiel and cymbals;
 * strings: banjo, first and second violins, violas, violoncellos and double basses.

Grofe's other settings of the piece include those done for Whiteman's 1930 film, King of Jazz, and the concert band setting (playable without piano) completed by 1938 (pub. 1942).

The prominence of the saxophones in the later orchestrations is somewhat reduced, and the banjo part can be dispensed with, as its mainly rhythmic contribution is provided by the inner strings.

Gershwin also made versions of the piece for solo piano as well as two pianos.

Gershwin's intent to eventually do an orchestration of his own is documented in 1936–37 correspondence from publisher Harms ("reissuance of The Rhapsody in Blue re-scored by yourself for large symphony orchestra").[22]

Recordings[edit]
Reissue of the 1927 "electrical" release of "Rhapsody in Blue" as Victor 35822A by Paul Whiteman and His Concert Orchestra with George Gershwin on piano. 1974 Grammy Hall of Fame inductee.

Two audio recordings exist of Gershwin performing an abridged version of the work with Whiteman's orchestra: an acoustic recording made June 10, 1924, released on two sides of Victor 55225 and running 8:59 (this recording includes the original clarinetist, Ross Gorman, playing the glissando) and an electrical recording made April 21, 1927, released on both sides of Victor 35822 and running 9:01 (about half the length of the complete work). This 1927 version was also dubbed onto an RCA 33 1/3 RPM Program Transcription in 1932 and issued as L-24001. The latter version was actually conducted by Nathaniel Shilkret after an argument between Gershwin and Whiteman.[23] (For an explanation of "acoustic" and "electrical", see gramophone record). A 1925 piano roll captured Gershwin's performance in a two piano version.[24] Whiteman's orchestra also performed the piece in the 1930 film The King of Jazz featuring Roy Bargy on piano. Whiteman re-recorded the piece on both sides of a 12" Decca 78 (29051) recorded on October 23, 1938.

Since the mid-20th century, the "1942" version has usually been performed by classical orchestras playing the expanded arrangement. In this form, it has become a staple of the concert repertoire. It has direct popular appeal while also being regarded respectfully by classical musicians.

In 1973, the piece was revived by jazz-rock artist Eumir Deodato on his album Deodato 2. The single reached Billboard peak positions #41 Pop, #10 Easy Listening.

In the late 1970s, interest in the original arrangement was revived. Reconstructions of it have been recorded by Michael Tilson Thomas and the Columbia Jazz Band in 1976, and by Maurice Peress with Ivan Davis on piano as part of a 60th-anniversary reconstruction of the entire 1924 concert.[25] In 2010 Steven Richman conducted a recording of the original version with pianist Lincoln Mayorga, clarinet/alto sax soloist Al Gallodoro, and Harmonie Ensemble/New York.[26] Andre Watts (1976), Marco Fumo (1974), andSara Davis Buechner (2005) released recordings of the work for solo piano as did Eric Himy (2004) in a version that featured the uncut original short score. Meanwhile, such two-piano teams as Jose Iturbi and Amparo Iturbi, France Veri and Michael Jamanis and Katia and Marielle Labèque, also recorded the piece.

Analysis[edit]
The famous clarinet opening ofRhapsody in Blue.

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George Gershwin playing his Rhapsody in Blue, February 24, 1924

Paul Whiteman asked Gershwin to write a "jazz concerto", which became the Rhapsody in Blue; like a concerto, the piece is written for solo piano with orchestra: a rhapsodydiffers from a concerto in that it features one extended movement instead of separate movements. Rhapsodies often incorporate passages of an improvisatory nature (although written out in a score), and are irregular in form, with heightened contrasts and emotional exuberance; Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue is typical in that it certainly has large contrasts in musical texture, style, and color. The music ranges from intensely rhythmic piano solos to slow, broad, and richly orchestrated sections.

The opening of Rhapsody in Blue is written as a clarinet trill followed by a legato 17-note rising diatonic scale. During a rehearsal, Whiteman's virtuoso clarinetist, Ross Gorman, rendered the upper portion of the scale as a captivating (and fully trombone-like) glissando: Gershwin heard it and insisted that it be repeated in the performance.[27]An American Heritage columnist called it the "famous opening clarinet glissando ... that has become as familiar as the start of Beethoven's Fifth".[14] The effect is produced primarily using the tongue and throat muscles to change the resonance of the oral cavity, thus controlling the continuously rising pitch.[28] Many players also gradually open the left-hand tone-holes on the clarinet during the passage from the last concert F (or earlier if possible, thus employing the right hand as well) to the top concert B-flat as well. This effect has now become standard performance practice for the work.

Rhapsody in Blue displays both rhythmic invention and melodic inspiration, and demonstrates Gershwin's ability to write a piece with large-scale harmonic and melodic structure. The piece is characterized by strong motivic interrelatedness. Much of the motivic material is introduced in the first 14 measures. David Schiff identifies five major themes plus a sixth “tag”.[29] Of these, two appear in the first 14 measures, and the tag shows up in measure 19. Two of the remaining three themes are rhythmically related to the very first theme in measure 2, which is sometimes called the Glissando theme (after the opening glissando in the clarinet solo) or the Ritornello theme. The remaining theme is the Train theme, which is the first to appear (at rehearsal 9) after the opening material. All of the themes rely on the blues scale, which includes lowered sevenths and a mixture of major and minor thirds. Each theme appears both in orchestrated form and as a piano solo. There are considerable differences in the style of presentation of each theme.

The harmonic structure of Rhapsody is more difficult to analyse. The piece begins and ends in B flat, but it modulates towards the sub-dominant direction very early on, returning to B flat at the end, rather abruptly. The opening modulates "downward", as it were, through the keys B flat, E flat, A flat, D flat, G flat, B, E, and finally to A major. Modulation through the circle of fifths in the reverse direction inverts classical tonal relationships, but does not abandon them. The entire middle section resides primarily in C major, with forays into G major (the dominant relation). Modulations occur freely and easily, though not always with harmonic direction. Gershwin frequently uses a recursive harmonic progression of minor thirds to give the illusion of motion when in fact a passage does not change key from beginning to end. Modulation by thirds was a common element of Tin Pan Alley music.

The influences of jazz and other contemporary styles are certainly present in Rhapsody in Blue. Ragtime rhythms are abundant, as is the Cuban "clave" rhythm, which doubles as a dance rhythm in the Charlestonjazz dance.[30]

Gershwin's own intentions were to correct the belief that jazz had to be played strictly in time so that one could dance to it.[29] The Rhapsody '​s tempos vary widely, and there is an almost extreme use of rubato in many places throughout. The clearest influence of jazz is the use of blue notes, and the exploration of their half-step relationship plays a key role in the Rhapsody.[30] The use of so-called "vernacular" instruments, such as accordion, banjo, and saxophones in the orchestra, contribute to its jazz or popular style, and the latter two of these instruments have remained part of Grofé's "standard" orchestra scoring. Gershwin incorporated several different piano styles into the work. He utilized the techniques of stride piano, novelty piano, comic piano, and the song-plugger piano style. Stride piano's rhythmic and improvisational style is evident in the "agitato e misterioso" section, which begins four bars after rehearsal 33, as well as in other sections, many of which include the orchestra. Novelty piano can be heard at rehearsal 9 with the revelation of the Train theme. The hesitations and light-hearted style of comic piano, a vaudeville approach to piano made well known by Chico Marx and Jimmy Durante, are evident at rehearsal 22.[29]

When this piece was released, it was labeled as jazz because the term was used to describe contemporary music.[citation needed]

In popular culture[edit]
Although Gershwin himself spoke of the rhapsody as "a musical kaleidoscope of America", Rhapsody in Blue has often been interpreted as a musical portrait of New York City; it is used to this effect in the filmsManhattan and Gremlins 2: The New Batch, as well as extensively in this context in a segment from the film Fantasia 2000,[31] in which the piece is used as the lyrical framing for a stylized animation set drawn in the style of famed illustrator Al Hirschfeld, to critical acclaim.

Brian Wilson, leader of The Beach Boys, has said on multiple occasions that Rhapsody in Blue is one of his favorite pieces. He first heard it when he was two years old, and recalls that he "loved" it.[32] It was also a heavy influence on his Smile album. He also came to think of "Good Vibrations" as "a smaller, psychedelic version of 'Rhapsody in Blue'".[33]

Michael Stipe of R.E.M. has cited this as one of the largest influences in his musical development.[citation needed]

Gordon Goodwin has arranged Rhapsody in Blue for big band, winning the 2012 Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Arrangement.[citation needed]

Rhapsody in Blue was played simultaneously by eighty-four pianists at the opening ceremony of the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.[34]

The piece was performed by Herbie Hancock and Lang Lang at the 50th Grammy Awards on February 10, 2008.[35]

The piece is used by United Airlines in their advertisements, in pre-flight safety videos, and in the Terminal 1 underground walkway at O'Hare International Airport.[36]

Rhapsody in Blue was used extensively throughout the 2013 film The Great Gatsby.[citation needed]

On the episode "Hiding in the Light" of the 2014 series Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey, Rhapsody in Blue was used both as a motif throughout the episode and as a finale piece showing the New York skyline as it would look through different wavelengths of light with the changes synchronized to the music.[citation needed]

"Rhapsody in Blue" can be heard periodically at Disney's Boardwalk Resort in Walt Disney World in Orlando, Florida which boasts a 1920's Atlantic City, NJ Boardwalk theme throughout the property.[citation needed]

Preservation status[edit]
On September 22, 2013, it was announced that a musicological critical edition of the full orchestral score will be eventually released. The Gershwin family, working in conjunction with the Library of Congress and theUniversity of Michigan, are working to make scores available to the public that represent Gershwin's true intent.[37][38]

The score to Rhapsody in Blue is currently scheduled to be issued second in a series of nine editions to be released. The project may take 30 to 40 years to complete.[39][40]

It is unknown if the critical edition will include the entire original score or only Gershwin's final edits. Usage of the critical edition for interpreting historical recordings is uncertain: it is unknown which of Ferde Grofe's three orchestrations will be included.